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Kriogenik (bahan bakar): Perbedaan antara revisi

Ensiklopedia Pengetahuan Universitas Islam Sultan Agung

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Impor teks terkontrol dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia; revisi 29298605; atribusi sumber disertakan.
 
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Presentation V4: sitasi, referensi, Math, Wikimedia Commons, dan atribusi
 
Baris 1: Baris 1:
'''Bahan bakar kriogenik''' adalah [[bahan bakar]] yang membutuhkan penyimpanan pada [[temperatur]] yang sangat rendah untuk menjaga mereka dalam keadaan [[Cairan|cair]]. Bahan bakar ini digunakan dalam mesin yang beroperasi dalam ruang (Misalnya - Roket kapal, Satelit, dll) karena bahan bakar biasa tidak bisa digunakan di sana, karena tidak adanya lingkungan yang mendukung pembakaran (Di bumi, kita memiliki lingkungan Oksigen, pendukung pembakaran). Bahan bakar kriogenik paling sering berupa cair gas seperti [[hidrogen cair]].
[[File:Liquid_Oxygen_(LOX)_ball_at_the_CCAFS_SLC-40.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Liquid Oxygen (LOX) ball at the CCAFS SLC-40]]


'''Bahan bakar kriogenik''' adalah [[bahan bakar]] yang membutuhkan penyimpanan pada [[temperatur]] yang sangat rendah untuk menjaga mereka dalam keadaan [[Cairan|cair]]. Bahan bakar ini digunakan dalam mesin yang beroperasi dalam ruang (Misalnya - Roket kapal, Satelit, dll) karena bahan bakar biasa tidak bisa digunakan di sana, karena tidak adanya lingkungan yang mendukung pembakaran (Di bumi, kita memiliki lingkungan Oksigen, pendukung pembakaran). Bahan bakar kriogenik paling sering berupa cair gas seperti [[hidrogen cair]].<ref>Biblarz, Oscar. ''Rocket Propulsion Elements''. Wiley. 2009. hlm. 597. ISBN 978-0-470-08024-5.</ref><ref>Øyvind Buhaug. [http://www.glmri.org/downloads/lngMisc/Combustion%20Characteristics%20of%20LNG-Oyvind%20Buhaug-21%20Sept%202011-II.pdf Combustion characteristics of LNG]. ''LNG Fuel Forum''. 2011-09-21.</ref><ref>Oil and Gas Journal. [http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-100/issue-33/processing/lng-liquefaction-technologies-move-toward-greater-efficiencies-lower-emissions.html LNG liquefaction technologies move toward greater efficiencies, lower emissions]. 2002-08-09.</ref>


Beberapa [[mesin roket]] menggunakan pendinginan regeneratif, praktik beredar bakar kriogenik mereka di sekitar nosel sebelum bahan bakar dipompa ke ruang bakar dan dinyalakan. Pengaturan ini pertama kali diusulkan oleh Eugen Sanger pada 1940-an. Roket [[Saturn V]] yang mengirim misi berawak pertama ke [[bulan]] menggunakan elemen desain ini, yang masih digunakan sampai sekarang.
Beberapa [[mesin roket]] menggunakan pendinginan regeneratif, praktik beredar bakar kriogenik mereka di sekitar nosel sebelum bahan bakar dipompa ke ruang bakar dan dinyalakan. Pengaturan ini pertama kali diusulkan oleh Eugen Sanger pada 1940-an. Roket [[Saturn V]] yang mengirim misi berawak pertama ke [[bulan]] menggunakan elemen desain ini, yang masih digunakan sampai sekarang.
Baris 11: Baris 12:


== Operasi ==
== Operasi ==
Bahan bakar kriogenik dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori:
Bahan bakar kriogenik dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori:  
* inert dan
* inert dan  
* mudah terbakar.
* mudah terbakar.  
Kedua jenis ini memanfaatkan rasio [[volume]] cairan terhadap gas yang besar yang terjadi saat cairan berubah menjadi fase [[gas]]. Kelayakan bahan bakar kriogenik dikaitkan dengan apa yang dikenal sebagai laju aliran massa yang tinggi. Dengan regulasi, energi berdensitas tinggi dari bahan bakar kriogenik digunakan untuk menghasilkan [[daya dorong]] dalam roket dan konsumsi bahan bakar yang terkendali. Bagian berikut memberikan perincian lebih lanjut.
Kedua jenis ini memanfaatkan rasio [[volume]] cairan terhadap gas yang besar yang terjadi saat cairan berubah menjadi fase [[gas]]. Kelayakan bahan bakar kriogenik dikaitkan dengan apa yang dikenal sebagai laju aliran massa yang tinggi. Dengan regulasi, energi berdensitas tinggi dari bahan bakar kriogenik digunakan untuk menghasilkan [[daya dorong]] dalam roket dan konsumsi bahan bakar yang terkendali. Bagian berikut memberikan perincian lebih lanjut.


Baris 55: Baris 56:
=== Manfaat ===
=== Manfaat ===
* Bahan bakar kriogenik lebih ramah lingkungan dibandingkan bensin atau bahan bakar fosil. Selain itu, tingkat emisi gas rumah kaca dapat dikurangi hingga 11–20% dengan menggunakan LNG dibandingkan bensin saat mengangkut barang.
* Bahan bakar kriogenik lebih ramah lingkungan dibandingkan bensin atau bahan bakar fosil. Selain itu, tingkat emisi gas rumah kaca dapat dikurangi hingga 11–20% dengan menggunakan LNG dibandingkan bensin saat mengangkut barang.
* Selain sifatnya yang ramah lingkungan, bahan bakar fosil juga berpotensi untuk menurunkan biaya transportasi produk dalam negeri secara signifikan karena jumlahnya yang melimpah dibandingkan bahan bakar fosil.
* Selain sifatnya yang ramah lingkungan, bahan bakar fosil juga berpotensi untuk menurunkan biaya transportasi produk dalam negeri secara signifikan karena jumlahnya yang melimpah dibandingkan bahan bakar fosil.  
* Bahan bakar kriogenik memiliki laju aliran massa yang lebih tinggi daripada bahan bakar fosil dan karenanya menghasilkan lebih banyak daya dorong dan tenaga saat dibakar untuk digunakan dalam mesin. Ini berarti bahwa mesin akan berjalan lebih jauh dengan bahan bakar yang lebih sedikit secara keseluruhan daripada mesin gas modern.
* Bahan bakar kriogenik memiliki laju aliran massa yang lebih tinggi daripada bahan bakar fosil dan karenanya menghasilkan lebih banyak daya dorong dan tenaga saat dibakar untuk digunakan dalam mesin. Ini berarti bahwa mesin akan berjalan lebih jauh dengan bahan bakar yang lebih sedikit secara keseluruhan daripada mesin gas modern.
* Bahan bakar kriogenik tidak menimbulkan polusi dan oleh karena itu, jika tumpah, tidak menimbulkan risiko bagi lingkungan. Tidak perlu membersihkan limbah berbahaya setelah terjadi tumpahan.
* Bahan bakar kriogenik tidak menimbulkan polusi dan oleh karena itu, jika tumpah, tidak menimbulkan risiko bagi lingkungan. Tidak perlu membersihkan limbah berbahaya setelah terjadi tumpahan.
Baris 89: Baris 90:
Tujuan tabel ini adalah untuk menjelaskan evolusi parameter antara lepas landas dan kedatangan di orbit: di sebelah kiri, nilai di permukaan laut; di sebelah kanan, sama dalam kehampaan. Ini adalah nilai nominal yang dihitung untuk sistem ideal, dibulatkan dalam satuan SI (komposisi dinyatakan dalam persentase massa):
Tujuan tabel ini adalah untuk menjelaskan evolusi parameter antara lepas landas dan kedatangan di orbit: di sebelah kiri, nilai di permukaan laut; di sebelah kanan, sama dalam kehampaan. Ini adalah nilai nominal yang dihitung untuk sistem ideal, dibulatkan dalam satuan SI (komposisi dinyatakan dalam persentase massa):


{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi sort-under" style="font-size: 85%;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | '''[[Propelan roket cair|Propelan]] [[Oksidan]]'''
! rowspan="2" | '''[[Propelan roket cair|Propelan]] [[Reduktor]]'''
! rowspan="2" | '''[[Hipergolik (propelan)|Hipergolik]]'''
! rowspan="2" | '''Kriogenik'''
! colspan="5" | Ekspansi optimal pada 6.895  kPa<br>'''di [[permukaan laut]]'''
! colspan="5" | Ekspansi optimal pada 6.895  kPa<br>'''dalam [[ruang hampa]]'''
|-
! ''ratio''<br>Ox/Red
! ''v <sub>e</sub>''<br>m/s
! ''ρ''<br>/cm <sup>3</sup>
! ''T <sub>C</sub>''<br>°C
! ''C*''<br>m/s
! ''ratio''<br>Ox/Red
! ''v <sub>e</sub>''<br>m/s
! ''ρ''<br>/cm <sup>3</sup>
! ''T <sub>C</sub>''<br>°C
! ''C*''<br>m/s
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|4.13
|3.816
|0,29
|2.740
|2.416
|4.83
|4.462
|0,32
|2.978
|2.386
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Metana|Metana]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|3.21
|3.034
|0,82
|3.260
|1.857
|3.45
|3.615
|0,83
|3.290
|1.838
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Etana|Etana]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|2.89
|3.006
|0,90
|3.320
|1.840
|3.10
|3.584
|0,91
|3.351
|1.825
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[RP-1]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|2.58
|2.941
|1.03
|3.403
|1.799
|2.77
|3.510
|1.03
|3.428
|1.783
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|0,92
|3.065
|1.07
|3.132
|1.892
|0,98
|3.460
|1.07
|3.146
|1.878
|-
|'''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Diborana|Diborana]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|1.96
|3.351
|0,74
|3.489
|2.041
|2.06
|4.016
|0,75
|3.563
|2.039
|-
|70% '''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''+ 30 '''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|4.80
|3.871
|0,32
|2.954
|2.453
|5.70
|4.520
|0,36
|3.195
|2.417
|-
|70% '''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''+ 30 '''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[RP-1]]'''
|Tidak
|Ya
|3.01
|3.103
|1.09
|3.665
|1.908
|3.30
|3.697
|1.10
|3.692
|1.889
|-
| rowspan="1" |70 '''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''+ 30% '''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[RP-1]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3.84
|3.377
|1.20
|4.361
|2.106
|3.84
|3.955
|1.20
|4.361
|2.104
|-
| rowspan="1" |87,8 '''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''+ 12,2% '''[[Oksigen cair|Oksigen cair]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|2.82
|3.525
|1.24
|4.454
|2.191
|2.83
|4.148
|1.23
|4.453
|2.186
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|7.94
|4.036
|0,46
|3.689
|2.556
|9.74
|4.697
|0,52
|3.985
|2.530
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|34,8% '''[[Litium|Li]]''' 65,2% '''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|0,96
|4.256
|0,19
|1.830
|2.680
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|39,3% '''[[Litium|Li]]''' + 60,7 '''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|
|
|
|
|
|1.08
|5.050
|0,21
|1.974
|2.656
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Metana|Metana]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|4.53
|3.414
|1.03
|3.918
|2.068
|4.74
|4.075
|1.04
|3.933
|2.064
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Etana|Etana]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3.68
|3.335
|1.09
|3.914
|2.019
|3.78
|3.987
|1.10
|3.923
|2.014
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|2.39
|3.413
|1.24
|4.074
|2.063
|2.47
|4.071
|1.24
|4.091
|1.987
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|2.32
|3.580
|1.31
|4.461
|2.219
|2.37
|4.215
|1.31
|4.468
|2.122
|-
|'''[[Fluorin|Fluorin]]'''
|'''[[Amonia|Amonia]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3.32
|3.531
|1.12
|4.337
|2.194
|3.35
|4.143
|1.12
|4.341
|2.193
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Hidrogen cair|Hidrogen cair]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|5.92
|4.014
|0,39
|3.311
|2.542
|7.37
|4.679
|0,44
|3.587
|2.499
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Metana|Metana]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|4.94
|3.485
|1.06
|4.157
|2.160
|5.58
|4.131
|1.09
|4.207
|2.139
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Etana|Etana]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3.87
|3.511
|1.13
|4.539
|2.176
|3.86
|4.137
|1.13
|4.538
|2.176
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[RP-1]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3.87
|3.424
|1.28
|4.436
|2.132
|3.85
|4.021
|1.28
|4.432
|2.130
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|1.51
|3.381
|1.26
|3.769
|2.087
|1.65
|4.008
|1.27
|3.814
|2.081
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|2.28
|3.427
|1.24
|4.075
|2.119
|2.58
|4.067
|1.26
|4.133
|2.106
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|50,5% '''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]''' + 29,8% '''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]+''' 19,7 '''[[Air|Air]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|1.75
|3.286
|1.24
|3.726
|2.025
|1.92
|3.908
|1.25
|3.769
|2.018
|-
|'''[[Oksigen difluorida|Oksigen difluorida]]'''
|'''[[Diborana|Diborana]]'''
|Ya
|Ya
|3,95
|3.653
|1.01
|4.479
|2.244
|3,98
|4.367
|1.02
|4.486
|2.167
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA III a]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.59
|2.690
|1.27
|2.849
|1.665
|2.71
|3.178
|1.28
|2.841
|1.655
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA III a]]'''
|'''[[Dimetilhidrazin tak simetris|UDMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|3.13
|2.668
|1.26
|2.874
|1.648
|3.31
|3.157
|1.27
|2.864
|1.634
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA III a]]'''
|60% '''[[Dimetilhidrazin tak simetris|UDMH]]''' + 40% '''[[Dietilentriamina|DETA]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|3.26
|2.638
|1.30
|2.848
|1.627
|3.41
|3.123
|1.31
|2.839
|1.617
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA IV HDA]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.43
|2.742
|1.29
|2.953
|1.696
|2.58
|3.242
|1.31
|2.947
|1.680
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA IV HDA]]'''
|'''[[Dimetilhidrazin tak simetris|UDMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.95
|2.719
|1.28
|2.983
|1.676
|3.12
|3.220
|1.29
|2.977
|1.662
|-
|'''[[Red fuming nitric acid|IRFNA IV HDA]]'''
|60% '''[[Dimetilhidrazin tak simetris|UDMH]]''' + 40% '''[[Dietilentriamina|DETA]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|3.06
|2.689
|1.32
|2.903
|1.656
|3.25
|3.187
|1.33
|2.951
|1.641
|-
|'''[[Dinitrogen tetroksida|Dinitrogen tetroksida]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|1.36
|2.862
|1.21
|2.992
|1.781
|1.42
|3.369
|1.22
|2.993
|1.770
|-
|'''[[Dinitrogen tetroksida|Dinitrogen tetroksida]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.17
|2.827
|1.19
|3.122
|1.745
|2.37
|3.347
|1.20
|3.125
|1.724
|-
|'''[[Dinitrogen tetroksida|Dinitrogen tetroksida]]'''
|50% '''[[Dimetilhidrazin tak simetris|UDMH]]''' + 50% '''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|1,98
|2.831
|1.12
|3.095
|1.747
|2.15
|3.349
|1.20
|3.096
|1.731
|-
| rowspan="1" |'''[[Klorin trifluorida|Klorin trifluorida]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.81
|2.885
|1.49
|3.650
|1.824
|2.89
|3.356
|1,50
|3.666
|1.822
|-
|'''[[Klorin pentafluorida|Klorin pentafluorida]]'''
|'''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.66
|3.069
|1.47
|3.894
|1.935
|2.71
|3.580
|1.47
|3.905
|1.934
|-
|'''[[Klorin pentafluorida|Klorin pentafluorida]]'''
|'''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.82
|2.962
|1.40
|3.577
|1.837
|2.83
|3.488
|1.40
|3.579
|1.837
|-
|'''[[Klorin pentafluorida|Klorin pentafluorida]]'''
|86% '''[[Monometilhidrazina|MMH]]''' + 14% '''[[Hidrazina|Hidrazina]]'''
|Ya
|Tidak
|2.78
|2.971
|1.41
|3.575
|1.844
|2.81
|3.498
|1.41
|3.579
|1.844
|}


== Mesin roket orbital kriogenik ==
== Mesin roket orbital kriogenik ==
 
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header sort-under" style="font-size:90%"
! Mesin
! Asal
! Perancang
! [[Wahana antariksa|Kendaraan]]
! Status
! [[Roket multitahap|Pengguna]]
! [[Propelan roket|Propelan kriogenik]]
! Siklus daya
! [[Impuls spesifik]] (s)
! [[Daya dorong]] (N)
! [[Ruang bakar|Tekanan ruang]] (bar)
! Massa (kg)
! [[Rasio dorong-berat|Daya dorong:rasio berat]]
! Rasio pengoksidasi:bahan bakar
|-
| [[Archimedes (rocket engine)|Archimedes]]
| 
| [[Rocket Lab]]
| [[Neutron (rocket)|Neutron]]
| Development
| 1st, 2nd
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Relativity Space#Aeon R|Aeon-R]]
|
|[[Relativity Space]]
|[[Terran R]]
|Development
|1st, 2nd
|[[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
|[[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[BE-3U]]
|
| [[Blue Origin]]
| [[New Glenn]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, open]]
| <ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsuqSn7ifpU First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!]. ''YouTube''. August 15, 2024.</ref>
| <ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsuqSn7ifpU First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!]. ''YouTube''. August 15, 2024.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[BE-4]]
|
| [[Blue Origin]]
| [[New Glenn]], [[Vulcan (rocket)|Vulcan]]
| Active<ref>Martin Belam. [https://www.theguardian.com/science/live/2024/jan/08/nasa-peregrine-1-launch-rocket-moon-latest-news-updates-live Nasa Peregrine 1 launch: Vulcan Centaur rocket carrying Nasa moon lander lifts off in Florida – live updates]. ''the Guardian''. 2024-01-08.</ref>
| 1st
| [[Methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsuqSn7ifpU First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!]. ''YouTube''. August 15, 2024.</ref>
| <ref>Warren Ferster. [http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/41901ula-to-invest-in-blue-origin-engine-as-rd-180-replacement ULA To Invest in Blue Origin Engine as RD-180 Replacement]. ''Space News''. 2014-09-17.</ref><ref>[http://www.blueorigin.com/media/press_release/united-launch-alliance-and-blue-origin-announce-partnership-to-develop-new BE-4]. Blue Origin.</ref>
| <ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsuqSn7ifpU First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!]. ''YouTube''. August 15, 2024.</ref>
|
|
|
|-
|[[BE-7]]
|
|[[Blue Origin]]
|[[Blue Moon (spacecraft)|Blue Moon]]
|Development
|1st
|[[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
|[[Expander cycle|Expander, open]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[CE-20]]
|
| [[Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre|LPSC]]
| [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III|GSLV Mk III]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[CE-7.5]]
|
| [[Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre|LPSC]]
| [[GSLV#GSLV Mk II|GSLV Mk II]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged]]
| <ref>[http://www.spaceflight101.com/gslv-launch-vehicle-information.html GSLV Launch Vehicle Information]. ''Spaceflight101.com''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[E2 (rocket engine)|E2]]
|
| [[ABL Space Systems]]
| [[RS1 (rocket)|RS1]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]] / [[LOX]] // Jet-A / LOX
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
| <ref>[https://ablspacesystems.com/rs1/ RS1]. ''ABL''.</ref>
|64
|
|
|
|-
| [[E2 Vacuum (rocket engine)|E2 Vacuum]]
|
| [[ABL Space Systems]]
| [[RS1 (rocket)|RS1]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]] / [[LOX]] // Jet-A / LOX
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
| <ref>[https://ablspacesystems.com/rs1/ RS1]. ''ABL''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Vast (company)#Rocket engines|Engine-2]]
|
| [[Vast (company)|Vast]]
|
| Development
| 1st
| [[RP-1]] / [[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://launcherspace.com/engine-2 Engine-2]. ''LAUNCHER''.</ref> <br /> (SL)
| <ref>[https://launcherspace.com/engine-2 Engine-2]. ''LAUNCHER''.</ref>
|100
|
|
|
|-
| [[Vast (company)#Rocket engines|Engine-2 Vacuum]]
|
| [[Vast (company)|Vast]]
|
| Development
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]] / [[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://launcherspace.com/engine-2 Engine-2]. ''LAUNCHER''.</ref>
| <ref>[https://launcherspace.com/engine-2 Engine-2]. ''LAUNCHER''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Hadley engine|Hadley]]
|
| [[Ursa Major Technologies]]
| [[Astra (American spaceflight company)#Rocket 4|Rocket 4]]
|Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|
|  (SL)<ref>[https://www.ursamajortechnologies.com/engines The Engines]. ''Ursa Major Technologies''.</ref>
|62
|
|
|
|-
|[[Helix (Rocket Engine)|Helix]]
|
|[[Rocket Factory Augsburg]]
|[[Rocket Factory Augsburg#Launch vehicle|RFA One]]
|Development
|1st, 2nd
|RP-1/LOX
|[[Staged combustion cycle|Staged combustion]]
|,<br/>325 (SL)<ref>Monica Arizaga. [https://www.rfa.space/helix-public-names-rfa-engine/ "Helix" - public names RFA engine]. ''Rocket Factory Augsburg''. 2022-03-18.</ref>
|<ref>Monica Arizaga. [https://www.rfa.space/helix-public-names-rfa-engine/ "Helix" - public names RFA engine]. ''Rocket Factory Augsburg''. 2022-03-18.</ref>
|<ref>Monica Arizaga. [https://www.rfa.space/rfa-successfully-hot-fires-helix-engine-for-a-total-of-74-seconds/ RFA successfully hot fires Helix engine for a total of 74 seconds]. ''Rocket Factory Augsburg''. 2022-07-13.</ref>
|
|
|
|-
| [[HyPER-15]]<ref>[https://www.spaceintel101.com/post/south-korea-s-innospace-will-launch-brazilian-payload-on-inaugural-flight-from-alc%C3%A2ntara South Korea's INNOSPACE will launch Brazilian payload on inaugural flight from Alcântara]. May 7, 2022.</ref>
|
|[[Innospace]]
| Hanbit-Nano, -Micro, -Mini
| Development
| 1st
| [[Paraffin wax|Paraffin]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Electric-pump-fed engine|Electric pump]]
|
| <ref>[https://twitter.com/innospacecorp/status/1410563047266033669 innospacecorp on Twitter: "Very proud and excited as we get ready to test the world's largest LOx/Paraffin Hybrid rocket engine developed for a smallsat Launcher.The HyPER-15, a 150kN Hybrid rocket engine, is scheduled to test this month at our Geumsan Engine Test Facility. Keep an eye out for our updates!"]. ''Twitter''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LE-5]]B
|
| [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]
| [[H-IIA]], <br />[[H-IIB]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle#Expander bleed cycle|Expander, open]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le5b.htm LE-5B].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LE-7]]A
|
| [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]
| [[H-IIA]], <br />[[H-IIB]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le7a.htm LE-7A].</ref> <br/> (SL)<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le7a.htm LE-7A].</ref>
| <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[LE-9]]
|
|[[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]
|[[H3 (rocket)|H-3]]
|Development
|1st
|[[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
|[[Expander cycle#Expander bleed cycle|Expander, open]]
|<ref>[https://www.jaxa.jp/press/2016/06/files/20160614_h3_01_j.pdf LE-9].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|.9
|-
| [[Firefly Alpha|Lightning 1]]
|
| [[Firefly Aerospace]]
| [[Firefly Alpha|Alpha]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Combustion tap-off cycle|Combustion tap-off]]
| <ref>[https://firefly.com/launch-alpha/ Launch-alpha]. ''Firefly Aerospace''.</ref>
| <ref>[https://firefly.com/launch-alpha/ Launch-alpha]. ''Firefly Aerospace''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Merlin (rocket engine)#Merlin 1D|Merlin 1D FT]]
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| Falcon [[Falcon 9 Block 5|9 B5]], [[Falcon Heavy|Heavy]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
| <ref>[http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/03/26/merlin-engines Merlin 1D]. ''SpaceX''.</ref> <br/> (SL)<ref>[http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/03/26/merlin-engines Merlin 1D]. ''SpaceX''.</ref>
|<ref>[http://www.b14643.de/Spacerockets_2/United_States_1/Falcon-9/Merlin/index.htm Evolution of the SpaceX Merlin engine]. ''www.b14643.de''.</ref>
|
| <ref>[http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/03/26/merlin-engines Merlin 1D]. ''SpaceX''.</ref>
|
|-
| [[Merlin (rocket engine)#Merlin 1D Vacuum|Merlin Vacuum 1D]]
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| Falcon [[Falcon 9 Block 5|9 B5]], [[Falcon Heavy|Heavy]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.spacex.com/falcon9 SpaceX Falcon 9 Product Page].</ref>
| <ref>[http://www.spacex.com/ SpaceX]. ''SpaceX''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Miranda (engine)|Miranda]]
|
| [[Firefly Aerospace]]
| [[Antares (rocket)|Antares 300 Series]], <br>[[Firefly Aerospace MLV|MLV]]
| Development
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Combustion tap-off cycle|Combustion tap-off]]
| <ref>[https://fireflyspace.com/mlv/ MLV].</ref>
| <ref>[https://fireflyspace.com/mlv/ MLV].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[M10 (rocket engine)|M10]]
|
| [[Avio]]
| [[Vega-E]]<ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
| Development
| Upper<ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]<ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
| <ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
| <ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
|
|
|
| <ref>[https://www.avio.com/m-10 M10 Engine]. Avio.</ref>
|-
| [[NK-33|NK-33A (AJ26-62)]], <br/>11Д111&thinsp;/&thinsp;14Д15
|
| [[JSC Kuznetsov]]
| [[Antares 100]], [[Soyuz-2-1v]]
| Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/nk33.htm NK-33].</ref><br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Raptor (rocket engine family)|Raptor]]<ref>[http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/03/spacex-advances-drive-mars-rocket-raptor-power/ Spacex Raptor]. NASA SpaceFlight. 7 March 2014.</ref>
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]
| Development
| 1st, 2nd
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, full-flow]]
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref> <br/> (SL)<ref>[https://everydayastronaut.com/spacex-raptor-engine-comparison/ Raptor 1 vs Raptor 2: What did SpaceX change?]. 2022-07-14.</ref>
|  (SL)<ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>[https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1657249739925258240 Raptor V3 just achieved 350 bar chamber pressure (269 tons of thrust). Congrats to @SpaceX propulsion team! Starship Super Heavy Booster has 33 Raptors, so total thrust of 8877 tons or 19.5 million pounds]. 2023-05-13.</ref>
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>Katy Groom. [https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/20190801_Final_DRAFT_EA_SpaceX_Starship.pdf Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC)]. ''netspublic.grc.nasa.gov''. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation. 1 August 2019. hlm. 250.</ref>
|-
| [[Raptor (rocket engine family)|Raptor Vacuum]]<ref>[http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/03/spacex-advances-drive-mars-rocket-raptor-power/ Spacex Raptor]. NASA SpaceFlight. 7 March 2014.</ref>
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]
| Development
| 2nd
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, full-flow]]
|  <ref>[https://x.com/elonmusk/status/1819781279828636041 In a few years, we will finally have a Raptor 3/4 vacuum version (giant nozzle) that has an Isp of 380]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>[https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1657249739925258240 Raptor V3 just achieved 350 bar chamber pressure (269 tons of thrust). Congrats to @SpaceX propulsion team! Starship Super Heavy Booster has 33 Raptors, so total thrust of 8877 tons or 19.5 million pounds]. 2023-05-13.</ref>
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>[https://x.com/SpaceX/status/1819772716339339664 Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg]. 2024-08-03.</ref>
| <ref>Katy Groom. [https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/20190801_Final_DRAFT_EA_SpaceX_Starship.pdf Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC)]. ''netspublic.grc.nasa.gov''. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation. 1 August 2019. hlm. 250.</ref>
|-
| [[RD-0124]], <br/>14Д23
|
| [[KBKhA]]
| [[Soyuz-2 (rocket)#Soyuz 2.1b|Soyuz-2.1b]], <br/>[[Soyuz-2-1v]], <br/>[[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]]
| Active
| 2nd, 3rd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://www.kbkha.ru/?p=8&cat=8&prod=51 RD-0124 Engine]. KBKha.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-0146]]D
|
| [[KBKhA]]
| [[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]]
| Development
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
| <ref>[http://www.khrunichev.ru/main.php?id=304 ГКНПЦ имени М.В.Хруничева Жидкостный ракетный двигатель РД - 0146]. ''www.khrunichev.ru''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-107]]A, <br/>14Д22
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Soyuz-FG]], [[Soyuz-2 (rocket)|-2]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.npoenergomash.ru/eng/dejatelnost/engines/rd107/ RD-107A and RD-108A]. ''NPO Energomash''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-107|RD-108A]], <br/>14Д21
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Soyuz-FG]], [[Soyuz-2 (rocket)|-2]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.npoenergomash.ru/eng/dejatelnost/engines/rd107/ RD-107A and RD-108A]. ''NPO Energomash''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-170 (rocket engine)|RD-171M]], 11Д520
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Soyuz-5 (rocket)|Soyuz-5]], [[Zenit-2M]], [[Zenit-3SL|-3SL]], [[Zenit-3SLB|-3SLB]], [[Zenit-3SLBF|-3SLBF]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://www.npoenergomash.ru/eng/dejatelnost/engines/rd171m/ RD-171M]. ''NPO Energomash''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-180]]
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Atlas V]], [[Atlas III|III]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://www.npoenergomash.ru/eng/dejatelnost/engines/rd180/ RD-180]. ''NPO Energomash''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-191]]
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://www.npoenergomash.ru/eng/dejatelnost/engines/rd191/ RD-191]. ''NPO Energomash''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-801]]
|
| [[Yuzhnoye Design Office|Pivdenne]]/[[Yuzhmash|Pivdenmash]]
| [[Mayak (rocket family)|Mayak]]
| Development
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://www.yuzhnoye.com/en/technique/rocket-engines/steering/rd-801/ RD-801]. ''www.yuzhnoye.com''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-809K]]
|
| [[Yuzhnoye Design Office|Pivdenne]]/[[Yuzhmash|Pivdenmash]]
| [[Mayak (rocket family)|Mayak]]
| Development
| Upper
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://www.yuzhnoye.com/en/technique/rocket-engines/steering/rd-801/ RD-801]. ''www.yuzhnoye.com''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-810]]
|
| [[Yuzhnoye Design Office|Pivdenne]]/[[Yuzhmash|Pivdenmash]]
| [[Mayak (rocket family)|Mayak]], [[Zenit (rocket family)|Zenit]]
| Development
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://www.yuzhnoye.com/en/technique/rocket-engines/steering/rd-810/ RD-810]. ''www.yuzhnoye.com''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-120|RD-870]]
|
| [[Yuzhnoye Design Office|Pivdenne]]/[[Yuzhmash|Pivdenmash]]
| [[Cyclone-4M]]
| Development
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[https://www.yuzhnoye.com/en/technique/rocket-engines/steering/rd-870/ RD-870]. ''Yuzhnoye SDO''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Firefly Alpha|Reaver 1]]
|
| [[Firefly Aerospace]]
| [[Firefly Alpha|Alpha]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Combustion tap-off cycle|Combustion tap-off]]
| 265 (SL)
<ref>[https://firefly.com/launch-alpha/ Launch-alpha]. ''Firefly Aerospace''.</ref> (Vac)
| <ref>[https://firefly.com/launch-alpha/ Launch-alpha]. ''Firefly Aerospace''.</ref>
|75
|
|
|
|-
| [[RL10|RL-10A-4-2]]<ref>[https://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/RL10%20data%20sheet%20Feb%202016.pdf RL10 Data Sheet-1]. Feb 2016.</ref>
|
| [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]]
| [[Atlas III|Atlas IIIB]], [[Atlas V|V]]
| Retired
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RL10|RL-10B-2]]<ref>[https://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/RL10%20data%20sheet%20Feb%202016.pdf RL10 Data Sheet-1]. Feb 2016.</ref>
|
| [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]]
| [[Delta III]], [[Delta IV|IV]], [[Space Launch System|SLS]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RL10|RL-10C-1]]<ref>[https://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/RL10%20data%20sheet%20Feb%202016.pdf RL10 Data Sheet-1]. Feb 2016.</ref>
|
| [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]]
| [[Delta III]], [[Delta IV|IV]], [[Space Launch System|SLS]], [[Vulcan (rocket)|Vulcan]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RS-25]]
|
| [[Rocketdyne]]
| [[Space Shuttle]], [[Space Launch System|SLS]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, fuel-rich]]
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)<ref>Aerojet Rocketdyne, [https://www.rocket.com/rs-25-engine RS-25 Engine] (accessed July 22, 2014)</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Rutherford (rocket engine)|Rutherford]]
| 
| [[Rocket Lab]]
| [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Electric-pump-fed engine|Electric pump]]
|
|  <br/> (SL)
|55
| <ref>[https://www.rocketlabusa.com/about-us/updates/rocket-lab-increases-electron-payload-capacity-enabling-interplanetary-missions-and-reusability/ Rocket Lab Increases Electron Payload Capacity, Enabling Interplanetary Missions and Reusability]. ''Rocket Lab''.</ref>
|  (SL)
|
|-
| [[Rutherford (rocket engine)|Rutherford Vacuum]]
| 
| [[Rocket Lab]]
| [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Electric-pump-fed engine|Electric pump]]
|
| <ref>[https://www.rocketlabusa.com/about-us/updates/rocket-lab-increases-electron-payload-capacity-enabling-interplanetary-missions-and-reusability/ Rocket Lab Increases Electron Payload Capacity, Enabling Interplanetary Missions and Reusability]. ''Rocket Lab''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[SCE-200]]
|
| [[Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre|LPSC]]
| [[GSLV Mk III]], [[Unified Launch Vehicle|ULV]]
| Development
| Upper, main
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[TEPREL]]-B
|
| [[PLD Space]]
| [[Miura 1]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Pressure-fed engine|Pressure-fed]]
|
|  (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[TEPREL]]-C
|
| [[PLD Space]]
| [[Miura 5]]
| Development
| 1st, 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas-generator]]
|
|  (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[TQ-12]]<ref>[https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/mNVv0Pe67Ls-_53Gy2seIg “天鹊”80吨液氧甲烷发动机100%推力100秒试车圆满成功]</ref>
|
| [[Landspace]]
| [[ZQ-2 (rocket)|ZQ-2]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|  (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Vinci (rocket engine)|Vinci]]
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 6]]
| Active
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vinci.html Vinci].</ref>
| <ref>[https://www.ariane.group/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/VINCI_2020_04_DS_EN_Eng_Web.pdf Vinci® engine]. Ariane.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Vulcain (rocket engine)|Vulcain 2.1]]
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 6]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-73]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 3]]
| Active
| 3rd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-75]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 3A]], [[Long March 3B|3B]], [[Long March 3C|3C]]
| Active
| 3rd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.cgwic.com/launchservices/download/manual/Chapter%202%20General%20Description.pdf LM-3A Series Launch Vehicle User's Manual. Issue 2011]. CASC. 2011. hlm. 2–4.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-75D]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 5]]
| Active
| 2nd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-77]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 5]]
| Active
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-79]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 9]]
| Development
| 3rd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle|Expander, closed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-90]]<ref>孙纪国,郑孟伟,龚杰峰,陶瑞峰. [http://hjtjnew.paperopen.com/upload/html/m/202202002.html 220tf补燃循环氢氧发动机研制进展]. 《火箭推进》2022年02期. 2022-01-15.</ref>
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 9]]
| Development
| 2nd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, fuel-rich]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-100]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 7]], [[Long March 5|5]]
| Active
| 1st
| RP-1/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|  <br />(SL)
|  <br>1,199,190 (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-115]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 6]], [[Long March 7|7]]
| Active
| 2nd
| RP-1/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[YF-130]]
|
| [[Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology|AALPT]]
| [[Long March 9]]
| Development
| 1st
| RP-1/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|  (SL)
|  (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
|Zenith
|
|[[Stoke Space|Stoke]]
|[[Stoke Space Nova|Nova]]
|Development
|1st
|[[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
|[[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, full-flow]]
| <ref>[https://www.stokespace.com/nova/ Nova]. ''Stoke Space / 100% reusable rockets / USA''.</ref>
|<ref>[https://www.stokespace.com/nova/ Nova]. ''Stoke Space / 100% reusable rockets / USA''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Relativity Space|Aeon 1]]
| 
| [[Relativity Space]]
| [[Terran 1]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|  (SL)<ref>[http://www.relativityspace.com/terran Terran 1 Technical Specifications]. ''Relativity''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Relativity Space|Aeon 1 Vacuum]]
|
| [[Relativity Space]]
| [[Terran 1]]
|Retired
| 2nd
| [[Liquid methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|
|  (SL)<ref>[http://www.relativityspace.com/terran Terran 1 Technical Specifications]. ''Relativity''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Aether (rocket engine)|Aether]]
|
| [[Astra Space]]
| [[List of Astra rocket launches#Rocket 3|Rocket 3.3]]
|Retired
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]/[[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]<ref>[https://www.spacelaunchreport.com/astra.html Astra Space Rocket]. ''www.spacelaunchreport.com''.</ref>
| [[Pressure-fed engine|Pressure-fed]]
|
| <ref>[https://astra.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Astra_MediaKit_LV0006.pdf Astra Media Kit LV0006]. 28 August 2021.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[AR1 (rocket engine)|AR1]]
|
| [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]]
|
|Cancelled
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|
|  (SL)<ref>[http://www.rocket.com/ar1-booster-engine AR1 Engine]. ''Aerojet Rocketdyne''.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Delphin (rocket engine)|Delphin]]
|
| [[Astra Space]]
| [[List of Astra rocket launches#Rocket 3|Rocket 3.3]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]/[[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]<ref>[https://www.spacelaunchreport.com/astra.html Astra Space Rocket]. ''www.spacelaunchreport.com''.</ref>
| [[Electric-pump-fed engine|Electric pump]]
|
| <ref>[https://astra.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Astra_MediaKit_LV0006.pdf Astra Media Kit LV0006]. 28 August 2021.</ref>
|31
|
|
|
|-
| [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1]]
|
| [[Rocketdyne]]
| [[Saturn V]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1A]]<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930019136.pdf Alternate Propulsion Subsystem Concepts NAS8-39210 DCN 1-1-PP-02147]</ref>
|
| [[Rocketdyne]]
|[[Saturn MLV]]
|Cancelled
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|- 
| [[HM-7B|HM-7A]]
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 1]]
|Retired
| 3rd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>Mark Wade. [http://www.astronautix.com/h/hm7-a.html HM7-A].</ref> <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[HM-7B]]
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 2]], [[Ariane 3|3]], [[Ariane 4|4]], [[Ariane 5|5 ECA]]
|Retired
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/hm7b-rocket-engine.html HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref> <br/> (SL)<ref>Mark Wade. [http://www.astronautix.com/h/hm7-b.html HM7-B].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/hm7b-rocket-engine.html HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref><br/>  (SL)<ref>Mark Wade. [http://www.astronautix.com/h/hm7-b.html HM7-B].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/hm7b-rocket-engine.html HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/hm7b-rocket-engine.html HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref>
|
|
|-
| [[J-2 (rocket engine)|J-2]]
|
| [[Rocketdyne]]
| [[Saturn V]], [[Saturn IB|IB]]
|Retired
| 2nd, 3rd
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>Mark Wade. [http://www.astronautix.com/j/j-2.html J-2].</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[J-2X]]
|
| [[Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne]]
| [[Ares I]], [[Ares V]], [[Space Launch System|SLS]] (proposed)
|Tested, Cancelled
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.pw.utc.com/products/pwr/propulsion_solutions/j-2x.asp J-2X Engine]. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne.</ref>
|
|
|
|
| –4.5
|-
| [[Kestrel (rocket engine)|Kestrel]]
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Falcon 1]]
|Retired
| Upper
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Pressure fed]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LE-5]]
|
| [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|NASDA]]
| [[H-I]]
|Retired
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le5.htm LE-5].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LE-5]]A
|
| [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|NASDA]]
| [[H-II]]
|Retired
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Expander cycle#Expander bleed cycle|Expander, open]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le5a.htm LE-5A].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LE-7]]
|
| [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|Mitsubishi]], [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|NASDA]]
| [[H-II]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/engines/le7.htm LE-7].</ref>
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Aerojet M-1|M-1]]
|
| [[Aerojet]]
|
|Cancelled
| 1st, 2nd?
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
|  (SL)
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Merlin (rocket engine)#Merlin 1C|Merlin 1C]]
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Falcon 9 v1.0]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php#merlin_engine Merlin section of Falcon 9 page]. SpaceX.</ref> <br/> (SL)<ref>[http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php#merlin_engine Merlin section of Falcon 9 page]. SpaceX.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Merlin (rocket engine)#Merlin Vacuum (1C)|Merlin Vacuum 1C]]
|
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Falcon 9 v1.0]]
|Retired
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9.html Falcon 9 Space Launch Report]. SpaceLaunchReport.</ref>
| <ref>[http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9.html Falcon 9 Space Launch Report]. SpaceLaunchReport.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[LauncherOne|NewtonThree]]
|
| [[Virgin Orbit]]
| [[LauncherOne]]
|Retired
| [[Booster (rocketry)|Booster]]
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Gas generator<ref>Scott R. Sargent. [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdfplus/10.2514/6.2016-4984 52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference]. 2016. doi:10.2514/6.2016-4984. ISBN 978-1-62410-406-0.</ref>
|
| <ref>[http://www.virgingalactic.com/assets/uploads/2014/11/VG_LauncherOne_ServiceGuide_v0.2_OSR.pdf LauncherOne Service Guide].</ref>
|70
|
|
|
|-
| [[LauncherOne|NewtonFour]]
|
| [[Virgin Orbit]]
| [[LauncherOne]]
|Retired
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Gas generator<ref>Scott R. Sargent. [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdfplus/10.2514/6.2016-4984 52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference]. 2016. doi:10.2514/6.2016-4984. ISBN 978-1-62410-406-0.</ref>
|
| <ref>[http://www.virgingalactic.com/assets/uploads/2014/11/VG_LauncherOne_ServiceGuide_v0.2_OSR.pdf LauncherOne Service Guide].</ref>
|
|
|
|
|- 
| [[RD-0120]] <br/>11Д122
|
| [[KBKhA]]
| [[Energia (rocket)|Energia]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Staged, fuel-rich
| <ref>[http://www.kbkha.ru/?p=8&cat=8&prod=34 RD0120]. KBKhA.</ref>
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-8]], <br/>11D513
|
| [[Yuzhnoye Design Office|Pivdenne]]/[[Yuzhmash|Pivdenmash]]
| [[Zenit (rocket family)|Zenit]]
|Retired
| 2nd vernier
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[KVD-1|RD-56 (KVD-1)]] <br/>11Д56У
|
| [[KBKhM]]
| [[GSLV#GSLV Mk I (a)|GSLV Mk I]]
|Retired
| Upper
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Staged, fuel-rich
| <ref>[http://kbhmisaeva.ru/main.php?id=54 KVD1 Rocket Engine]. КБХМ им. A.M. Исаева.</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-107|RD-117]] <br/>11Д511
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Soyuz-U]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Gas generator
| <ref>[http://www.lpre.de/energomash/RD-107/index.htm RD-117]. ''Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-107|RD-118]] <br/>11Д512
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Soyuz-U]]
|Retired
| 2nd
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Gas generator
| <ref>[http://www.lpre.de/energomash/RD-107/index.htm RD-117]. ''Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines''.</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-170 (rocket engine)|RD-170]]11Д521<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/r/rd-170.html RD-170].</ref>
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Energia (rocket)|Energia]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| Staged, oxidizer-rich
|  <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RD-181]]
|
| [[NPO Energomash]]
| [[Antares 200]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
| <ref>[http://spaceflight101.com/spacerockets/antares-200-series/ Antares 200 Series – Rockets].</ref> <br/> (SL)
|  <br/> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[RD-193]]
|
|[[NPO Energomash]]
|[[Soyuz-2-1v]]
|Cancelled
|1st
|[[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
|[[Staged combustion cycle|Staged, oxidizer-rich]]
|<ref>[http://novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/mag/2013/1004/13840/ Универсальный ракетный двигатель РД-193. Мнение инженера-разработчика]. Журнал «Новости космонавтики».</ref> <br /> (SL)
| <br /> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RS-27A]]
|
| [[Rocketdyne]]
| [[Delta (rocket family)|Delta]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[RP-1]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/r/rs-27a.html RS-27A].</ref> <br /> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[RS-68A]]
|
| [[Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne|Rocketdyne]]
| [[Delta IV]], [[Delta IV Heavy|IV Heavy]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[https://www.rocket.com/space/liquid-engines/rs-68a RS-68A]. www.rocket.com.</ref> <br /> (SL)
|  <br /> (SL)
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Vulcain (rocket engine)|Vulcain]] <br />HM-60
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 5]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref> <br /> (SL)<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vulcain.html Vulcain].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref> <br /> (SL)<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vulcain.html Vulcain].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref>
| <ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vulcain.html Vulcain].</ref>
|
|
|-
| [[Vulcain (rocket engine)|Vulcain 2]]
|
| [[Snecma]]
| [[Ariane 5]]
|Retired
| 1st
| [[Liquid hydrogen|LH<sub>2</sub>]]&thinsp;/&thinsp;[[LOX]]
| [[Gas-generator cycle|Gas generator]]
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-2-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref> <br /> (SL)<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vulcain2.html Vulcain 2].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-2-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref> <br /> (SL)<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/v/vulcain2.html Vulcain 2].</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-2-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref>
| <ref>[http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/launcher-propulsion/rocket-engines/vulcain-2-rocket-engine.html Vulcain Astrium]. Airbus Defence and Space.</ref>
|
|
|}


== Lihat pula ==
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 113: Baris 2.100:


== Referensi ==
== Referensi ==
<references />


== Sumber dan atribusi ==


Konten artikel ini diadaptasi dari [https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kriogenik+%28bahan+bakar%29&oldid=29298605 Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia], revisi 29298605 (2026-05-31T17:41:18Z), yang tersedia berdasarkan lisensi Creative Commons Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa (CC BY-SA). Gambar pada artikel ini bersumber dari Wikimedia Commons dan mengikuti ketentuan lisensi masing-masing berkas. Mohon gunakan konten dan media secara bijak serta sesuai dengan ketentuan lisensi yang berlaku.


== Sumber dan atribusi ==
<!-- WIKI_UNISSULA_PRESENTATION_V4 -->
 
Konten artikel ini diadaptasi dari [https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kriogenik+%28bahan+bakar%29&oldid=29298605 Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia], revisi 29298605 (2026-05-31T17:41:18Z), yang tersedia berdasarkan lisensi Creative Commons Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa (CC BY-SA). Mohon gunakan konten ini secara bijak serta sesuai dengan ketentuan lisensi yang berlaku.

Revisi terkini sejak 27 Agustus 2026 03.57

Liquid Oxygen (LOX) ball at the CCAFS SLC-40

Bahan bakar kriogenik adalah bahan bakar yang membutuhkan penyimpanan pada temperatur yang sangat rendah untuk menjaga mereka dalam keadaan cair. Bahan bakar ini digunakan dalam mesin yang beroperasi dalam ruang (Misalnya - Roket kapal, Satelit, dll) karena bahan bakar biasa tidak bisa digunakan di sana, karena tidak adanya lingkungan yang mendukung pembakaran (Di bumi, kita memiliki lingkungan Oksigen, pendukung pembakaran). Bahan bakar kriogenik paling sering berupa cair gas seperti hidrogen cair.[1][2][3]

Beberapa mesin roket menggunakan pendinginan regeneratif, praktik beredar bakar kriogenik mereka di sekitar nosel sebelum bahan bakar dipompa ke ruang bakar dan dinyalakan. Pengaturan ini pertama kali diusulkan oleh Eugen Sanger pada 1940-an. Roket Saturn V yang mengirim misi berawak pertama ke bulan menggunakan elemen desain ini, yang masih digunakan sampai sekarang.

Cukup sering, oksigen cair yang keliru disebut "bahan bakar" kriogenik, meskipun sebenarnya merupakan oksidator dan bukan bahan bakar.

Rusia produsen pesawat Tupolev mengembangkan desain versi populer Tu-154 tetapi dengan sistem bahan bakar kriogenik, ditunjuk Tu-155. Menggunakan bahan bakar disebut sebagai gas alam cair (LNG), penerbangan pertama pada tahun 1989.

India mengembangkan teknologi ini pada tahun 2008 untuk digunakan dalam mereka roket GSLV.

Operasi

Bahan bakar kriogenik dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori:

  • inert dan
  • mudah terbakar.

Kedua jenis ini memanfaatkan rasio volume cairan terhadap gas yang besar yang terjadi saat cairan berubah menjadi fase gas. Kelayakan bahan bakar kriogenik dikaitkan dengan apa yang dikenal sebagai laju aliran massa yang tinggi. Dengan regulasi, energi berdensitas tinggi dari bahan bakar kriogenik digunakan untuk menghasilkan daya dorong dalam roket dan konsumsi bahan bakar yang terkendali. Bagian berikut memberikan perincian lebih lanjut.

Lembam

Jenis bahan bakar ini biasanya menggunakan pengaturan produksi dan aliran gas untuk menggerakkan piston di dalam mesin. Peningkatan tekanan yang besar dikontrol dan diarahkan ke piston mesin. Piston bergerak karena tenaga mekanis yang diubah dari produksi bahan bakar gas yang dipantau. Contoh penting dapat dilihat pada kendaraan udara cair milik Peter Dearman. Beberapa bahan bakar inert yang umum meliputi:

Mudah terbakar

Bahan bakar ini memanfaatkan sifat kriogenik cair yang bermanfaat beserta sifat mudah terbakar dari zat tersebut sebagai sumber tenaga. Jenis bahan bakar ini dikenal terutama karena penggunaannya dalam roket . Beberapa bahan bakar mudah terbakar yang umum meliputi:

Mesin pembakaran

Bahan bakar kriogenik yang mudah terbakar menawarkan lebih banyak kegunaan daripada kebanyakan bahan bakar inert. Gas alam cair, seperti bahan bakar lainnya, hanya akan terbakar jika dicampur dengan jumlah udara yang tepat. Sedangkan untuk LNG, sebagian besar efisiensi bergantung pada angka metana, yang merupakan padanan gas dari angka oktan. Hal ini ditentukan berdasarkan kandungan metana dari bahan bakar cair dan gas terlarut lainnya, dan bervariasi sebagai hasil dari efisiensi eksperimental. Memaksimalkan efisiensi pada mesin pembakaran akan menjadi hasil dari penentuan rasio bahan bakar terhadap udara yang tepat dan memanfaatkan penambahan hidrokarbon lain untuk pembakaran yang lebih optimal.

Efisiensi produksi

Proses pencairan gas telah mengalami peningkatan selama beberapa dekade terakhir dengan munculnya mesin yang lebih baik dan pengendalian kehilangan panas sistem. Teknik-teknik yang umum memanfaatkan suhu gas yang mendingin secara drastis saat tekanan gas yang terkendali dilepaskan. Tekanan yang cukup dan kemudian penurunan tekanan berikutnya dapat mencairkan sebagian besar gas, seperti yang dicontohkan oleh efek Joule-Thomson.

Gas alam cair

Meskipun mencairkan gas alam untuk penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan penggunaan adalah hemat biaya, sekitar 10 hingga 15 persen gas dikonsumsi selama proses. Proses optimal berisi empat tahap pendinginan propana dan dua tahap pendinginan etilena. Dapat ada penambahan tahap refrigeran tambahan, tetapi biaya peralatan tambahan tidak dapat dibenarkan secara ekonomi. Efisiensi dapat dikaitkan dengan proses kaskade komponen murni yang meminimalkan keseluruhan perbedaan suhu sumber ke tempat pembuangan yang terkait dengan kondensasi refrigeran. Proses yang dioptimalkan menggabungkan pemulihan panas yang dioptimalkan bersama dengan penggunaan refrigeran murni. Semua perancang proses pabrik pencairan yang menggunakan teknologi yang terbukti menghadapi tantangan yang sama: untuk mendinginkan dan mengembunkan campuran dengan refrigeran murni secara efisien. Dalam proses Kaskade yang dioptimalkan, campuran yang akan didinginkan dan dikondensasikan adalah gas umpan. Dalam proses refrigeran campuran propana, dua campuran yang memerlukan pendinginan dan kondensasi adalah gas umpan dan refrigeran campuran. Sumber utama inefisiensi terletak pada rangkaian pertukaran panas selama proses pencairan.

Metana murni

Metana (CH4) adalah komponen utama dari gas alam cair (LNG), sedangkan LNG adalah gas alam yang telah dicairkan. Metana merupakan senyawa dengan satu atom karbon dan empat atom hidrogen (CH4) dan komponen terbesar dari gas alam. LNG adalah gas alam yang didinginkan hingga -162 °C (-260 °F) untuk mengubahnya menjadi cairan, komponen utamanya adalah metana (CH4), yang mencakup sekitar 95% komposisinya. Juga mengandung etana, propana, dan zat lainnya, tidak berwarna dan tidak berbau dan volume gas alam dalam keadaan cair sekitar 600 kali lebih kecil daripada volumenya dalam keadaan gas.

Metana murni adalah gas alam yang tidak berbau dan memiliki rumus kimia CH4. Metana merupakan komponen utama gas alam dan salah satu gas rumah kaca utama. Sifat metana murni Mudah terbakar, Berkontribusi pada efek pemanasan global, 20-30 kali lebih kuat sebagai gas rumah kaca daripada karbondioksida. Metana murni digunakan untuk memasak, pemanas ruangan, dan pembangkit listrik Digunakan dalam reaksi kimia untuk menghasilkan gas penting lainnya, seperti hidrogen, karbon monoksida, dan karbon hitam

Metana cair digunakan sebagai bahan bakar, bahan baku kimia, dan bahan bakar roket. Sebagai bahan bakar alternatif di sektor transportasi untuk mengurangi penggunaan bahan bakar minyak. Sebagai bahan bakar roket, bila dikombinasikan dengan oksigen cair. Mesin-mesin yang menggunakan metana cair dan oksigen cair umumnya dikelompokkan bersama di bawah istilah methalox. Dalam proses industri bahan baku kimia dan dapat diangkut sebagai cairan yang dibekukan (gas alam cair, atau LNG), sebagai bahan baku dalam produksi senyawa kimia seperti amonia dan metanol

Proses pembuatan Metana kemurnian tinggi dari LNG

  • Menghilangkan kontaminan
  • Menghilangkan air dan hidrokarbon berat (kondensat gas)
  • Menghilangkan nitrogen dan helium
  • Menghilangkan Merkuri
  • Pencairan gas

Keuntungan dan kerugian

Manfaat

  • Bahan bakar kriogenik lebih ramah lingkungan dibandingkan bensin atau bahan bakar fosil. Selain itu, tingkat emisi gas rumah kaca dapat dikurangi hingga 11–20% dengan menggunakan LNG dibandingkan bensin saat mengangkut barang.
  • Selain sifatnya yang ramah lingkungan, bahan bakar fosil juga berpotensi untuk menurunkan biaya transportasi produk dalam negeri secara signifikan karena jumlahnya yang melimpah dibandingkan bahan bakar fosil.
  • Bahan bakar kriogenik memiliki laju aliran massa yang lebih tinggi daripada bahan bakar fosil dan karenanya menghasilkan lebih banyak daya dorong dan tenaga saat dibakar untuk digunakan dalam mesin. Ini berarti bahwa mesin akan berjalan lebih jauh dengan bahan bakar yang lebih sedikit secara keseluruhan daripada mesin gas modern.
  • Bahan bakar kriogenik tidak menimbulkan polusi dan oleh karena itu, jika tumpah, tidak menimbulkan risiko bagi lingkungan. Tidak perlu membersihkan limbah berbahaya setelah terjadi tumpahan.

Potensi kerugian

  • Beberapa bahan bakar kriogenik, seperti LNG, mudah terbakar secara alami. Tumpahan bahan bakar yang terbakar dapat mengakibatkan ledakan besar. Hal ini mungkin terjadi jika terjadi kecelakaan mobil dengan mesin LNG.
  • Tangki penyimpanan kriogenik harus mampu menahan tekanan tinggi. Tangki propelan bertekanan tinggi memerlukan dinding yang lebih tebal dan paduan yang lebih kuat yang membuat tangki kendaraan lebih berat, sehingga mengurangi kinerja.
  • Meskipun cenderung tidak beracun, bahan bakar kriogenik lebih padat daripada udara. Oleh karena itu, bahan bakar ini dapat menyebabkan sesak napas. Jika bocor, cairan akan mendidih menjadi gas dingin yang sangat padat dan jika terhirup, dapat berakibat fatal.

Mesin roket kriogenik

Mesin roket kriogenik adalah mesin roket yang menggunakan bahan bakar kriogenik dan oksidator ; yaitu, bahan bakar dan oksidatornya adalah gas yang telah dicairkan dan disimpan pada suhu yang sangat rendah. Mesin yang sangat efisien ini pertama kali diterbangkan pada Atlas-Centaur AS dan merupakan salah satu faktor utama keberhasilan NASA dalam mencapai Bulan oleh roket Saturn V.

Mesin roket yang membakar propelan kriogenik masih digunakan hingga saat ini pada tahap atas dan pendorong berkinerja tinggi. Tahap atas jumlahnya banyak. Pendorong termasuk Ariane 6 milik ESA, H-II milik JAXA, GSLV milik ISRO, LVM3, dan Sistem Peluncuran Luar Angkasa milik NASA. Amerika Serikat, Rusia, India, Jepang, Prancis, dan Cina adalah satu-satunya negara yang memiliki mesin roket kriogenik yang beroperasi.

Propelan kriogenik

Mesin roket memerlukan laju aliran massa yang tinggi dari oksidator dan bahan bakar untuk menghasilkan daya dorong yang berguna. Oksigen, oksidator paling sederhana dan paling umum, berada dalam fase gas pada suhu dan tekanan standar, seperti halnya hidrogen, bahan bakar paling sederhana. Meskipun memungkinkan untuk menyimpan propelan sebagai gas bertekanan, ini akan membutuhkan tangki besar dan berat yang akan membuat pencapaian penerbangan antariksa orbital menjadi sulit jika tidak mustahil. Di sisi lain, jika propelan didinginkan dengan cukup, mereka ada dalam fase cair pada kepadatan yang lebih tinggi dan tekanan yang lebih rendah, menyederhanakan pengisian tangki. Suhu kriogenik ini bervariasi tergantung pada propelan, dengan oksigen cair yang ada di bawah −183 °C (−297,4 °F; 90,1 K) dan hidrogen cair di bawah −253 °C (−423,4 °F; 20,1 K). Karena satu atau lebih propelan berada dalam fase cair, semua mesin roket kriogenik menurut definisi adalah mesin roket propelan cair.

Berbagai kombinasi bahan bakar-pengoksidasi kriogenik telah dicoba, namun kombinasi bahan bakar hidrogen cair (LH2) dan pengoksidasi oksigen cair (LOX) merupakan salah satu yang paling banyak digunakan. Kedua komponen tersebut mudah dan murah tersedia, dan ketika dibakar memiliki salah satu pelepasan entalpi tertinggi dalam pembakaran, menghasilkan impuls spesifik hingga 450 detik pada kecepatan buang efektif 4,4 kilometer per detik (2,7 mi/s; Mach 13).

Komponen dan siklus pembakaran

Komponen utama dari mesin roket kriogenik adalah ruang pembakaran, inisiator piroteknik, injektor bahan bakar, turbopump bahan bakar dan oksidator, katup kriogenik, regulator, tangki bahan bakar, dan nosel mesin roket. Dalam hal memasok propelan ke ruang pembakaran, mesin roket kriogenik hampir secara eksklusif menggunakan pompa. Mesin yang menggunakan pompa bekerja dalam siklus generator gas, siklus pembakaran bertahap, atau siklus ekspander. Mesin generator gas cenderung digunakan pada mesin pendorong karena efisiensinya yang lebih rendah, mesin pembakaran bertahap dapat mengisi kedua peran tersebut dengan mengorbankan kompleksitas yang lebih besar, dan mesin ekspander secara eksklusif digunakan pada tahap atas karena daya dorongnya yang rendah.

Perbandingan propelan roket cair di permukaan laut dan dalam ruang hampa

Data dalam tabel di bawah ini berasal dari buku Huzel & Huang "Modern Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines", 1992, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Washington, (ISBN 1-56347-013- 6); Berisi hasil yang diterbitkan oleh Rocketdyne berdasarkan perhitungan yang dilakukan dengan asumsi pembakaran adiabatik, ekspansi isentropik uniaxial dan penyesuaian berkelanjutan rasio campuran oksidan/bahan bakar sebagai fungsi ketinggian. Perhitungan ini dilakukan untuk tekanan ruang bakar sebesar 1.000 PSI, yaitu 1.000 "pon per inci persegi", yang dalam satuan internasional (SI) setara dengan 6.894.757 Pa. Kecepatan ejeksi pada tekanan yang lebih rendah dapat diperkirakan dengan menerapkan koefisien dari grafik seberang.

Besaran yang ditampilkan dalam tabel ini adalah sebagai berikut:

  • ratio, perbandingan pencampuran (laju aliran massa oksidan terhadap laju aliran massa bahan bakar)
  • v e, kecepatan ejeksi gas buang, dinyatakan dalam meter per detik
  • ρ, kepadatan nyata propelan, dinyatakan dalam gram per sentimeter kubik
  • T C, suhu keseimbangan di ruang bakar, dinyatakan dalam °C
  • C*, kecepatan karakteristik, dinyatakan dalam meter per detik

Tujuan tabel ini adalah untuk menjelaskan evolusi parameter antara lepas landas dan kedatangan di orbit: di sebelah kiri, nilai di permukaan laut; di sebelah kanan, sama dalam kehampaan. Ini adalah nilai nominal yang dihitung untuk sistem ideal, dibulatkan dalam satuan SI (komposisi dinyatakan dalam persentase massa):

Propelan Oksidan Propelan Reduktor Hipergolik Kriogenik Ekspansi optimal pada 6.895 kPa
di permukaan laut 		Ekspansi optimal pada 6.895 kPa
dalam ruang hampa
ratio
Ox/Red 		v e
m/s 		ρ
/cm 3 		T C
°C 		C*
m/s 		ratio
Ox/Red 		v e
m/s 		ρ
/cm 3 		T C
°C 		C*
m/s
Oksigen cair Hidrogen cair Tidak Ya 4.13 3.816 0,29 2.740 2.416 4.83 4.462 0,32 2.978 2.386
Oksigen cair Metana Tidak Ya 3.21 3.034 0,82 3.260 1.857 3.45 3.615 0,83 3.290 1.838
Oksigen cair Etana Tidak Ya 2.89 3.006 0,90 3.320 1.840 3.10 3.584 0,91 3.351 1.825
Oksigen cair RP-1 Tidak Ya 2.58 2.941 1.03 3.403 1.799 2.77 3.510 1.03 3.428 1.783
Oksigen cair Hidrazina Tidak Ya 0,92 3.065 1.07 3.132 1.892 0,98 3.460 1.07 3.146 1.878
Oksigen cair Diborana Tidak Ya 1.96 3.351 0,74 3.489 2.041 2.06 4.016 0,75 3.563 2.039
70% Oksigen cair+ 30 Fluorin Hidrogen cair Tidak Ya 4.80 3.871 0,32 2.954 2.453 5.70 4.520 0,36 3.195 2.417
70% Oksigen cair+ 30 Fluorin RP-1 Tidak Ya 3.01 3.103 1.09 3.665 1.908 3.30 3.697 1.10 3.692 1.889
70 Fluorin+ 30% Oksigen cair RP-1 Ya Ya 3.84 3.377 1.20 4.361 2.106 3.84 3.955 1.20 4.361 2.104
87,8 Fluorin+ 12,2% Oksigen cair MMH Ya Ya 2.82 3.525 1.24 4.454 2.191 2.83 4.148 1.23 4.453 2.186
Fluorin Hidrogen cair Ya Ya 7.94 4.036 0,46 3.689 2.556 9.74 4.697 0,52 3.985 2.530
Fluorin 34,8% Li 65,2% Hidrogen cair Ya Ya 0,96 4.256 0,19 1.830 2.680
Fluorin 39,3% Li + 60,7 Hidrogen cair Ya Ya 1.08 5.050 0,21 1.974 2.656
Fluorin Metana Ya Ya 4.53 3.414 1.03 3.918 2.068 4.74 4.075 1.04 3.933 2.064
Fluorin Etana Ya Ya 3.68 3.335 1.09 3.914 2.019 3.78 3.987 1.10 3.923 2.014
Fluorin MMH Ya Ya 2.39 3.413 1.24 4.074 2.063 2.47 4.071 1.24 4.091 1.987
Fluorin Hidrazina Ya Ya 2.32 3.580 1.31 4.461 2.219 2.37 4.215 1.31 4.468 2.122
Fluorin Amonia Ya Ya 3.32 3.531 1.12 4.337 2.194 3.35 4.143 1.12 4.341 2.193
Oksigen difluorida Hidrogen cair Ya Ya 5.92 4.014 0,39 3.311 2.542 7.37 4.679 0,44 3.587 2.499
Oksigen difluorida Metana Ya Ya 4.94 3.485 1.06 4.157 2.160 5.58 4.131 1.09 4.207 2.139
Oksigen difluorida Etana Ya Ya 3.87 3.511 1.13 4.539 2.176 3.86 4.137 1.13 4.538 2.176
Oksigen difluorida RP-1 Ya Ya 3.87 3.424 1.28 4.436 2.132 3.85 4.021 1.28 4.432 2.130
Oksigen difluorida Hidrazina Ya Ya 1.51 3.381 1.26 3.769 2.087 1.65 4.008 1.27 3.814 2.081
Oksigen difluorida MMH Ya Ya 2.28 3.427 1.24 4.075 2.119 2.58 4.067 1.26 4.133 2.106
Oksigen difluorida 50,5% MMH + 29,8% Hidrazina+ 19,7 Air Ya Ya 1.75 3.286 1.24 3.726 2.025 1.92 3.908 1.25 3.769 2.018
Oksigen difluorida Diborana Ya Ya 3,95 3.653 1.01 4.479 2.244 3,98 4.367 1.02 4.486 2.167
IRFNA III a MMH Ya Tidak 2.59 2.690 1.27 2.849 1.665 2.71 3.178 1.28 2.841 1.655
IRFNA III a UDMH Ya Tidak 3.13 2.668 1.26 2.874 1.648 3.31 3.157 1.27 2.864 1.634
IRFNA III a 60% UDMH + 40% DETA Ya Tidak 3.26 2.638 1.30 2.848 1.627 3.41 3.123 1.31 2.839 1.617
IRFNA IV HDA MMH Ya Tidak 2.43 2.742 1.29 2.953 1.696 2.58 3.242 1.31 2.947 1.680
IRFNA IV HDA UDMH Ya Tidak 2.95 2.719 1.28 2.983 1.676 3.12 3.220 1.29 2.977 1.662
IRFNA IV HDA 60% UDMH + 40% DETA Ya Tidak 3.06 2.689 1.32 2.903 1.656 3.25 3.187 1.33 2.951 1.641
Dinitrogen tetroksida Hidrazina Ya Tidak 1.36 2.862 1.21 2.992 1.781 1.42 3.369 1.22 2.993 1.770
Dinitrogen tetroksida MMH Ya Tidak 2.17 2.827 1.19 3.122 1.745 2.37 3.347 1.20 3.125 1.724
Dinitrogen tetroksida 50% UDMH + 50% Hidrazina Ya Tidak 1,98 2.831 1.12 3.095 1.747 2.15 3.349 1.20 3.096 1.731
Klorin trifluorida Hidrazina Ya Tidak 2.81 2.885 1.49 3.650 1.824 2.89 3.356 1,50 3.666 1.822
Klorin pentafluorida Hidrazina Ya Tidak 2.66 3.069 1.47 3.894 1.935 2.71 3.580 1.47 3.905 1.934
Klorin pentafluorida MMH Ya Tidak 2.82 2.962 1.40 3.577 1.837 2.83 3.488 1.40 3.579 1.837
Klorin pentafluorida 86% MMH + 14% Hidrazina Ya Tidak 2.78 2.971 1.41 3.575 1.844 2.81 3.498 1.41 3.579 1.844

Mesin roket orbital kriogenik

Mesin Asal Perancang Kendaraan Status Pengguna Propelan kriogenik Siklus daya Impuls spesifik (s) Daya dorong (N) Tekanan ruang (bar) Massa (kg) Daya dorong:rasio berat Rasio pengoksidasi:bahan bakar
Archimedes Rocket Lab Neutron Development 1st, 2nd CH4 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
Aeon-R Relativity Space Terran R Development 1st, 2nd CH4 / LOX Gas generator
BE-3U Blue Origin New Glenn Active 2nd LH2 / LOX Expander, open [4] [5]
BE-4 Blue Origin New Glenn, Vulcan Active[6] 1st CH4 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [7] [8][9] [10]
BE-7 Blue Origin Blue Moon Development 1st LH2 / LOX Expander, open
CE-20 LPSC GSLV Mk III Active Upper LH2 / LOX Gas generator
CE-7.5 LPSC GSLV Mk II Active Upper LH2 / LOX Staged [11]
E2 ABL Space Systems RS1 Active 1st RP-1 / LOX // Jet-A / LOX Gas generator [12] 64
E2 Vacuum ABL Space Systems RS1 Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX // Jet-A / LOX Gas generator [13]
Engine-2 Vast Development 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [14]
(SL) 		[15] 100
Engine-2 Vacuum Vast Development 2nd RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [16] [17]
Hadley Ursa Major Technologies Rocket 4 Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich (SL)[18] 62
Helix Rocket Factory Augsburg RFA One Development 1st, 2nd RP-1/LOX Staged combustion ,
325 (SL)[19] 		[20] [21]
HyPER-15[22] Innospace Hanbit-Nano, -Micro, -Mini Development 1st Paraffin / LOX Electric pump [23]
LE-5B Mitsubishi, JAXA H-IIA,
H-IIB 		Active Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, open [24]
LE-7A Mitsubishi, JAXA H-IIA,
H-IIB 		Active 1st LH2 / LOX Staged [25]
(SL)[26]
(SL)
LE-9 Mitsubishi, JAXA H-3 Development 1st LH2 / LOX Expander, open [27] .9
Lightning 1 Firefly Aerospace Alpha Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX Combustion tap-off [28] [29]
Merlin 1D FT SpaceX Falcon 9 B5, Heavy Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [30]
(SL)[31] 		[32] [33]
Merlin Vacuum 1D SpaceX Falcon 9 B5, Heavy Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [34] [35]
Miranda Firefly Aerospace Antares 300 Series,
MLV 		Development 1st RP-1 / LOX Combustion tap-off [36] [37]
M10 Avio Vega-E[38] Development Upper[39] CH4 / LOX[40] Expander, closed [41] [42] [43]
NK-33A (AJ26-62),
11Д111 / 14Д15 		JSC Kuznetsov Antares 100, Soyuz-2-1v Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [44]
(SL)
(SL)
Raptor[45] SpaceX Starship Development 1st, 2nd CH4 / LOX Staged, full-flow [46]
(SL)[47] 		(SL)[48] [49] [50] [51] [52]
Raptor Vacuum[53] SpaceX Starship Development 2nd CH4 / LOX Staged, full-flow [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59]
RD-0124,
14Д23 		KBKhA Soyuz-2.1b,
Soyuz-2-1v,
Angara 		Active 2nd, 3rd RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [60]
RD-0146D KBKhA Angara Development Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, closed [61]
RD-107A,
14Д22 		NPO Energomash Soyuz-FG, -2 Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [62]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-108A,
14Д21 		NPO Energomash Soyuz-FG, -2 Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [63]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-171M, 11Д520 NPO Energomash Soyuz-5, Zenit-2M, -3SL, -3SLB, -3SLBF Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [64]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-180 NPO Energomash Atlas V, III Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [65]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-191 NPO Energomash Angara Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [66]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-801 Pivdenne/Pivdenmash Mayak Development 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [67]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-809K Pivdenne/Pivdenmash Mayak Development Upper RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [68]
RD-810 Pivdenne/Pivdenmash Mayak, Zenit Development 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [69]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-870 Pivdenne/Pivdenmash Cyclone-4M Development 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [70]
(SL)
(SL)
Reaver 1 Firefly Aerospace Alpha Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Combustion tap-off 265 (SL)

[71] (Vac)

[72] 75
RL-10A-4-2[73] Aerojet Rocketdyne Atlas IIIB, V Retired Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, closed
RL-10B-2[74] Aerojet Rocketdyne Delta III, IV, SLS Active Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, closed
RL-10C-1[75] Aerojet Rocketdyne Delta III, IV, SLS, Vulcan Active Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, closed
RS-25 Rocketdyne Space Shuttle, SLS Active 1st LH2 / LOX Staged, fuel-rich
(SL)
(SL)[76]
Rutherford Rocket Lab Electron Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Electric pump
(SL) 		55 [77] (SL)
Rutherford Vacuum Rocket Lab Electron Active 2nd RP-1 / LOX Electric pump [78]
SCE-200 LPSC GSLV Mk III, ULV Development Upper, main RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
(SL)
(SL)
TEPREL-B PLD Space Miura 1 Active 1st RP-1 / LOX Pressure-fed (SL)
TEPREL-C PLD Space Miura 5 Development 1st, 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas-generator (SL)
TQ-12[79] Landspace ZQ-2 Active 1st CH4 / LOX Gas generator (SL)
Vinci Snecma Ariane 6 Active Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, closed[80] [81]
Vulcain 2.1 Snecma Ariane 6 Active 1st LH2 / LOX Gas generator
YF-73 AALPT Long March 3 Active 3rd LH2 / LOX Gas generator
YF-75 AALPT Long March 3A, 3B, 3C Active 3rd LH2 / LOX Gas generator [82]
YF-75D AALPT Long March 5 Active 2nd LH2 / LOX Expander, closed
YF-77 AALPT Long March 5 Active 1st LH2 / LOX Gas generator
(SL)
(SL)
YF-79 AALPT Long March 9 Development 3rd LH2 / LOX Expander, closed
YF-90[83] AALPT Long March 9 Development 2nd LH2 / LOX Staged, fuel-rich
YF-100 AALPT Long March 7, 5 Active 1st RP-1/ LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
(SL)
1,199,190 (SL)
YF-115 AALPT Long March 6, 7 Active 2nd RP-1/ LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
YF-130 AALPT Long March 9 Development 1st RP-1/ LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich (SL) (SL)
Zenith Stoke Nova Development 1st CH4 / LOX Staged, full-flow [84] [85]
Aeon 1 Relativity Space Terran 1 Retired 1st CH4 / LOX Gas generator (SL)[86]
Aeon 1 Vacuum Relativity Space Terran 1 Retired 2nd CH4 / LOX Gas generator (SL)[87]
Aether Astra Space Rocket 3.3 Retired 2nd RP-1/LOX[88] Pressure-fed [89]
AR1 Aerojet Rocketdyne Cancelled 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich (SL)[90]
Delphin Astra Space Rocket 3.3 Retired 1st RP-1/LOX[91] Electric pump [92] 31
F-1 Rocketdyne Saturn V Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator
(SL)
(SL)
F-1A[93] Rocketdyne Saturn MLV Cancelled 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator
(SL)
(SL)
HM-7A Snecma Ariane 1 Retired 3rd LH2 / LOX Gas generator [94]
(SL)
HM-7B Snecma Ariane 2, 3, 4, 5 ECA Retired Upper LH2 / LOX Gas generator [95]
(SL)[96] 		[97]
(SL)[98] 		[99] [100]
J-2 Rocketdyne Saturn V, IB Retired 2nd, 3rd LH2 / LOX Gas generator [101]
(SL)
(SL)
J-2X Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Ares I, Ares V, SLS (proposed) Tested, Cancelled Upper LH2 / LOX Gas generator [102] –4.5
Kestrel SpaceX Falcon 1 Retired Upper RP-1 / LOX Pressure fed
LE-5 Mitsubishi, NASDA H-I Retired Upper LH2 / LOX Gas generator [103]
LE-5A Mitsubishi, NASDA H-II Retired Upper LH2 / LOX Expander, open [104]
LE-7 Mitsubishi, NASDA H-II Retired 1st LH2 / LOX Staged combustion [105]
(SL)
M-1 Aerojet Cancelled 1st, 2nd? LH2 / LOX Gas generator (SL)
Merlin 1C SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.0 Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [106]
(SL)[107]
Merlin Vacuum 1C SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.0 Retired 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [108] [109]
NewtonThree Virgin Orbit LauncherOne Retired Booster RP-1 / LOX Gas generator[110] [111] 70
NewtonFour Virgin Orbit LauncherOne Retired 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas generator[112] [113]
RD-0120
11Д122 		KBKhA Energia Retired 1st LH2 / LOX Staged, fuel-rich [114]
(SL)
RD-8,
11D513 		Pivdenne/Pivdenmash Zenit Retired 2nd vernier RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
RD-56 (KVD-1)
11Д56У 		KBKhM GSLV Mk I Retired Upper LH2 / LOX Staged, fuel-rich [115]
RD-117
11Д511 		NPO Energomash Soyuz-U Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [116]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-118
11Д512 		NPO Energomash Soyuz-U Retired 2nd RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [117]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-17011Д521[118] NPO Energomash Energia Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich
(SL)
(SL)
RD-181 NPO Energomash Antares 200 Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [119]
(SL)
(SL)
RD-193 NPO Energomash Soyuz-2-1v Cancelled 1st RP-1 / LOX Staged, oxidizer-rich [120]
(SL)
(SL)
RS-27A Rocketdyne Delta Retired 1st RP-1 / LOX Gas generator [121]
(SL)
RS-68A Rocketdyne Delta IV, IV Heavy Retired 1st LH2 / LOX Gas generator [122]
(SL)
(SL)
Vulcain
HM-60 		Snecma Ariane 5 Retired 1st LH2 / LOX Gas generator [123]
(SL)[124] 		[125]
(SL)[126] 		[127] [128]
Vulcain 2 Snecma Ariane 5 Retired 1st LH2 / LOX Gas generator [129]
(SL)[130] 		[131]
(SL)[132] 		[133] [134]

Lihat pula

Referensi

  1. ↑ Biblarz, Oscar. Rocket Propulsion Elements. Wiley. 2009. hlm. 597. ISBN 978-0-470-08024-5.
  2. ↑ Øyvind Buhaug. Combustion characteristics of LNG. LNG Fuel Forum. 2011-09-21.
  3. ↑ Oil and Gas Journal. LNG liquefaction technologies move toward greater efficiencies, lower emissions. 2002-08-09.
  4. ↑ First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!. YouTube. August 15, 2024.
  5. ↑ First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!. YouTube. August 15, 2024.
  6. ↑ Martin Belam. Nasa Peregrine 1 launch: Vulcan Centaur rocket carrying Nasa moon lander lifts off in Florida – live updates. the Guardian. 2024-01-08.
  7. ↑ First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!. YouTube. August 15, 2024.
  8. ↑ Warren Ferster. ULA To Invest in Blue Origin Engine as RD-180 Replacement. Space News. 2014-09-17.
  9. ↑ BE-4. Blue Origin.
  10. ↑ First Look Inside Blue Origin's New Glenn Factory w/ Jeff Bezos!. YouTube. August 15, 2024.
  11. ↑ GSLV Launch Vehicle Information. Spaceflight101.com.
  12. ↑ RS1. ABL.
  13. ↑ RS1. ABL.
  14. ↑ Engine-2. LAUNCHER.
  15. ↑ Engine-2. LAUNCHER.
  16. ↑ Engine-2. LAUNCHER.
  17. ↑ Engine-2. LAUNCHER.
  18. ↑ The Engines. Ursa Major Technologies.
  19. ↑ Monica Arizaga. "Helix" - public names RFA engine. Rocket Factory Augsburg. 2022-03-18.
  20. ↑ Monica Arizaga. "Helix" - public names RFA engine. Rocket Factory Augsburg. 2022-03-18.
  21. ↑ Monica Arizaga. RFA successfully hot fires Helix engine for a total of 74 seconds. Rocket Factory Augsburg. 2022-07-13.
  22. ↑ South Korea's INNOSPACE will launch Brazilian payload on inaugural flight from Alcântara. May 7, 2022.
  23. ↑ innospacecorp on Twitter: "Very proud and excited as we get ready to test the world's largest LOx/Paraffin Hybrid rocket engine developed for a smallsat Launcher.The HyPER-15, a 150kN Hybrid rocket engine, is scheduled to test this month at our Geumsan Engine Test Facility. Keep an eye out for our updates!". Twitter.
  24. ↑ LE-5B.
  25. ↑ LE-7A.
  26. ↑ LE-7A.
  27. ↑ LE-9.
  28. ↑ Launch-alpha. Firefly Aerospace.
  29. ↑ Launch-alpha. Firefly Aerospace.
  30. ↑ Merlin 1D. SpaceX.
  31. ↑ Merlin 1D. SpaceX.
  32. ↑ Evolution of the SpaceX Merlin engine. www.b14643.de.
  33. ↑ Merlin 1D. SpaceX.
  34. ↑ SpaceX Falcon 9 Product Page.
  35. ↑ SpaceX. SpaceX.
  36. ↑ MLV.
  37. ↑ MLV.
  38. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  39. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  40. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  41. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  42. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  43. ↑ M10 Engine. Avio.
  44. ↑ NK-33.
  45. ↑ Spacex Raptor. NASA SpaceFlight. 7 March 2014.
  46. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  47. ↑ Raptor 1 vs Raptor 2: What did SpaceX change?. 2022-07-14.
  48. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  49. ↑ Raptor V3 just achieved 350 bar chamber pressure (269 tons of thrust). Congrats to @SpaceX propulsion team! Starship Super Heavy Booster has 33 Raptors, so total thrust of 8877 tons or 19.5 million pounds. 2023-05-13.
  50. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  51. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  52. ↑ Katy Groom. Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). netspublic.grc.nasa.gov. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation. 1 August 2019. hlm. 250.
  53. ↑ Spacex Raptor. NASA SpaceFlight. 7 March 2014.
  54. ↑ In a few years, we will finally have a Raptor 3/4 vacuum version (giant nozzle) that has an Isp of 380. 2024-08-03.
  55. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  56. ↑ Raptor V3 just achieved 350 bar chamber pressure (269 tons of thrust). Congrats to @SpaceX propulsion team! Starship Super Heavy Booster has 33 Raptors, so total thrust of 8877 tons or 19.5 million pounds. 2023-05-13.
  57. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  58. ↑ Raptor 3 (sea level variant) Thrust: 280tf Specific impulse: 350s Engine mass: 1525kg Engine + vehicle-side commodities and hardware mass : 1720kg. 2024-08-03.
  59. ↑ Katy Groom. Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). netspublic.grc.nasa.gov. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation. 1 August 2019. hlm. 250.
  60. ↑ RD-0124 Engine. KBKha.
  61. ↑ ГКНПЦ имени М.В.Хруничева Жидкостный ракетный двигатель РД - 0146. www.khrunichev.ru.
  62. ↑ RD-107A and RD-108A. NPO Energomash.
  63. ↑ RD-107A and RD-108A. NPO Energomash.
  64. ↑ RD-171M. NPO Energomash.
  65. ↑ RD-180. NPO Energomash.
  66. ↑ RD-191. NPO Energomash.
  67. ↑ RD-801. www.yuzhnoye.com.
  68. ↑ RD-801. www.yuzhnoye.com.
  69. ↑ RD-810. www.yuzhnoye.com.
  70. ↑ RD-870. Yuzhnoye SDO.
  71. ↑ Launch-alpha. Firefly Aerospace.
  72. ↑ Launch-alpha. Firefly Aerospace.
  73. ↑ RL10 Data Sheet-1. Feb 2016.
  74. ↑ RL10 Data Sheet-1. Feb 2016.
  75. ↑ RL10 Data Sheet-1. Feb 2016.
  76. ↑ Aerojet Rocketdyne, RS-25 Engine (accessed July 22, 2014)
  77. ↑ Rocket Lab Increases Electron Payload Capacity, Enabling Interplanetary Missions and Reusability. Rocket Lab.
  78. ↑ Rocket Lab Increases Electron Payload Capacity, Enabling Interplanetary Missions and Reusability. Rocket Lab.
  79. ↑ “天鹊”80吨液氧甲烷发动机100%推力100秒试车圆满成功
  80. ↑ Vinci.
  81. ↑ Vinci® engine. Ariane.
  82. ↑ LM-3A Series Launch Vehicle User's Manual. Issue 2011. CASC. 2011. hlm. 2–4.
  83. ↑ 孙纪国,郑孟伟,龚杰峰,陶瑞峰. 220tf补燃循环氢氧发动机研制进展. 《火箭推进》2022年02期. 2022-01-15.
  84. ↑ Nova. Stoke Space / 100% reusable rockets / USA.
  85. ↑ Nova. Stoke Space / 100% reusable rockets / USA.
  86. ↑ Terran 1 Technical Specifications. Relativity.
  87. ↑ Terran 1 Technical Specifications. Relativity.
  88. ↑ Astra Space Rocket. www.spacelaunchreport.com.
  89. ↑ Astra Media Kit LV0006. 28 August 2021.
  90. ↑ AR1 Engine. Aerojet Rocketdyne.
  91. ↑ Astra Space Rocket. www.spacelaunchreport.com.
  92. ↑ Astra Media Kit LV0006. 28 August 2021.
  93. ↑ Alternate Propulsion Subsystem Concepts NAS8-39210 DCN 1-1-PP-02147
  94. ↑ Mark Wade. HM7-A.
  95. ↑ HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber. Airbus Defence and Space.
  96. ↑ Mark Wade. HM7-B.
  97. ↑ HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber. Airbus Defence and Space.
  98. ↑ Mark Wade. HM7-B.
  99. ↑ HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber. Airbus Defence and Space.
  100. ↑ HM-7 and HM-7B Rocket Engine - Thrust Chamber. Airbus Defence and Space.
  101. ↑ Mark Wade. J-2.
  102. ↑ J-2X Engine. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne.
  103. ↑ LE-5.
  104. ↑ LE-5A.
  105. ↑ LE-7.
  106. ↑ Merlin section of Falcon 9 page. SpaceX.
  107. ↑ Merlin section of Falcon 9 page. SpaceX.
  108. ↑ Falcon 9 Space Launch Report. SpaceLaunchReport.
  109. ↑ Falcon 9 Space Launch Report. SpaceLaunchReport.
  110. ↑ Scott R. Sargent. 52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference. 2016. doi:10.2514/6.2016-4984. ISBN 978-1-62410-406-0.
  111. ↑ LauncherOne Service Guide.
  112. ↑ Scott R. Sargent. 52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference. 2016. doi:10.2514/6.2016-4984. ISBN 978-1-62410-406-0.
  113. ↑ LauncherOne Service Guide.
  114. ↑ RD0120. KBKhA.
  115. ↑ KVD1 Rocket Engine. КБХМ им. A.M. Исаева.
  116. ↑ RD-117. Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines.
  117. ↑ RD-117. Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines.
  118. ↑ RD-170.
  119. ↑ Antares 200 Series – Rockets.
  120. ↑ Универсальный ракетный двигатель РД-193. Мнение инженера-разработчика. Журнал «Новости космонавтики».
  121. ↑ RS-27A.
  122. ↑ RS-68A. www.rocket.com.
  123. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  124. ↑ Vulcain.
  125. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  126. ↑ Vulcain.
  127. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  128. ↑ Vulcain.
  129. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  130. ↑ Vulcain 2.
  131. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  132. ↑ Vulcain 2.
  133. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.
  134. ↑ Vulcain Astrium. Airbus Defence and Space.

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