Komposisi tubuh manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi

Revisi terkini sejak 28 Agustus 2026 23.00

Komposisi tubuh dapat dianalisis dengan berbagai cara. Misalnya dikaitkan dengan unsur-unsur kimiawi yang ada, atau berdasarkan jenis molekul seperti air, protein, jaringan ikat, lemak (atau lipida), hidroksilapatit (dalam tulang), karbohidrat (seperti glikogen dan glukosa) dan DNA. Berdasarkan jenis jaringannya, tubuh dapat dianalisis menjadi air, lemak, jaringan ikat, otot, tulang, dan sebagainya. Berdasarkan jenis selnya, tubuh mengandung ratusan jenis sel, tetapi jumlah sel terbanyak dalam tubuh manusia (bukan berdasarkan massanya) bukanlah sel manusia itu sendiri, tetapi bakteri normal yang berada di saluran pencernaan manusia.

Unsur

Unsur utama yang menyusun tubuh manusia (termasuk air)
Unsur	Simbol	% massa	% atom
Oksigen	O	65,0	24,0
Karbon	C	18,5	12,0
Hidrogen	H	9,5	62,0
Nitrogen	N	3,2	1,1
Kalsium	Ca	1,5	0,22
Fosfor	P	1,0	0,22
Kalium	K	0,4	0,03
Belerang	S	0,3	0,038
Natrium	Na	0,2	0,037
Klorin	Cl	0,2	0,024
Magnesium	Mg	0,1	0,015
Unsur lainnya		< 0,1	< 0,3

Hampir 99% dari massa tubuh manusia tersusun oleh enam unsur: oksigen, karbon, hidrogen, nitrogen, kalsium, dan fosfor. Hanya sekitar 0,85% yang disusun oleh lima unsur lainnya: kalium, belerang, natrium, klorin, dan magnesium. Kesebelas unsur tersebut diperlukan untuk hidup. Unsur-unsur yang tersisa merupakan unsur renik, yang diperkirakan berjumlah lebih dari selusin (berdasarkan bukti yang baik) yang diperlukan untuk hidup. Jika seluruh massa unsur renik digabungkan bersama-sama (jumlahnya kurang dari 10 gram untuk tubuh manusia) tetap tidak mencapai massa magnesium dalam tubuh, yang merupakan unsur nonrenik berjumlah paling sedikit.

Unsur lainnya

Tidak semua unsur yang dijumpai dalam tubuh manusia dalam jumlah renik memiliki peran dalam hidup. Beberapa dari unsur ini diperkirakan merupakan kontaminan tanpa fungsi (contohnya cesium dan titanium), sementara banyak unsur lainnya diperkirakan sebagai racun aktif, bergantung pada jumlahnya (kadmium, raksa, dan unsur radioaktif). Manfaat dan toksisitas aluminium, unsur yang pada level normal dijumpai dalam tubuh manusia, masih diperdebatkan. Fungsi kadmium dan timbal bagi tubuh juga telah diajukan, meskipun hampir dipastikan keduanya toksik dalam jumlah yang jauh di atas kandungan normal tubuh. Terdapat bukti bahwa arsenik, unsur yang normalnya dianggap sebagai racun dalam jumlah yang lebih tinggi, bersifat esensial dalam jumlah ultrarenik, bahkan untuk mamalia (tikus, hamster, kambing).^[1]

Beberapa unsur (arsenik, silikon, boron, nikel, vanadium) mungkin juga diperlukan oleh mamalia, tetapi dalam dosis yang jauh lebih kecil. Brom digunakan secara luas oleh beberapa (meski tidak semua) organisme yang lebih rendah, dan ditemukan secara oportunistik dalam eosinofil manusia. Satu studi menemukan bahwa bromin diperlukan untuk sintesis kolagen IV pada manusia.^[2] Fluor digunakan oleh sejumlah tumbuhan untuk menghasilkan racun, tetapi pada manusia hanya berfungsi sebagai zat pengeras lokal (topikal) pada email gigi, dan tidak ditemukan pada peran biologis esensial.

Daftar komposisi unsur

Tubuh manusia dewasa dengan berat rata-rata 70 kg mengandung sekitar atom dan sekurang-kurangnya 60 unsur kimia yang terdeteksi secara renik.^[3] Sekitar 29 unsur dari jumlah ini diperkirakan memainkan peran positif aktif dalam kehidupan dan kesehatan manusia.^[4]

Jumlah relatif masing-masing unsur bervariasi menurut individu, terutama karena perbedaan proporsi lemak, otot, dan tulang dalam tubuh mereka. Orang dengan lebih banyak lemak akan memiliki proporsi karbon yang lebih tinggi, sedangkan proporsi sebagian besar unsur lain akan lebih rendah. Proporsi hidrogen kira-kira sama. Angka yang ditampilkan dalam tabel merupakan angka rata-rata dari bermacam-macam referensi berbeda.

Rata-rata tubuh manusia dewasa mengandung ~53% air. Namun, hal ini sangat bervariasi menurut usia, jenis kelamin, dan adipositas. Berdasarkan pengambilan sampel dalam jumlah besar pada orang dewasa dari semua umur dan kedua jenis kelamin, angka untuk fraksi air menurut beratnya yaitu 48 ±6% untuk perempuan dan 58 ±8% air untuk laki-laki.^[5] Air mengandung ~11% hidrogen berdasarkan massa, tetapi ~67% hidrogen berdasarkan persen atom; angka-angka ini bersama dengan angka % komplementer untuk oksigen dalam air, merupakan penyumbang terbesar untuk keseluruhan angka komposisi massa dan komposisi atom. Karena kandungan airnya, tubuh manusia mengandung lebih banyak oksigen berdasarkan massa daripada unsur lainnya, tetapi, berdasarkan fraksi atom, lebih banyak hidrogen daripada unsur apa pun.

Unsur-unsur pada tabel di bawah yang digolongkan sebagai "Esensial pada manusia" merupakan unsur-unsur yang terdaftar pada Badan Pengawas Obat dan Makanan Amerika Serikat sebagai nutrisi esensial,^[6] yang mencakup enam unsur tambahan: oksigen, karbon, hidrogen, dan nitrogen (unsur pembangun kehidupan fundamental di Bumi), belerang (esensial untuk semua sel), dan kobalt (komponen penting vitamin B). Unsur-unsur yang digolongkan sebagai "Mungkin" esensial adalah yang dikutip oleh Akademi Riset Nasional AS sebagai unsur yang bermanfaat bagi kesehatan manusia dan mungkin penting.^[7]

Nomor atom	Unsur	Fraksi massa^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]	Massa (kg)^[14]	Persen atom	Esensial untuk manusia^[15]	Efek negatif jika berlebih	Golongan
8	Oksigen	0,65	43	24	Ya (misalnya air, akseptor elektron)^[16]	Spesies oksigen reaktif	16
6	Karbon	0,18	16	12	Ya^[17] (Senyawa organik)		14
1	Hidrogen	0,10	7	62	Ya^[18] (misalnya air)		1
7	Nitrogen	0,03	1,8	1,1	Ya^[19] (misalnya DNA dan asam amino)		15
20	Kalsium	0,014	1,0	0,22	Ya^[20]^[21]^[22] (misalnya Kalmodulin dan Hidroksilapatit dalam tulang)		2
15	Fosfor	0,011	0,78	0,22	Ya^[23]^[24]^[25] (misalnya DNA dan fosforilasi)	alotrop putih sangat beracun	15
19	Kalium		0,14	0,033	Ya^[26]^[27] (misalnya Na+/K+-ATPase)		1
16	Belerang		0,14	0,038	Ya^[28] (misalnya Sistein, Metionin, Biotin, Tiamin)		16
11	Natrium		0,10	0,037	Ya^[29] (misalnya Na+/K+-ATPase)			1
17	Klorin		0,095	0,024	Ya^[30]^[31] (misalnya ATPase transport klorida)		17
12	Magnesium		0,019	0,0070	Ya^[32]^[33] (misalnya berikatan dengan ATP dan nukleotida lainnya)		2
26	Besi*		0,0042	0,00067	Ya^[34]^[35] (misalnya Hemoglobin, Sitokrom)		8
9	Fluor		0,0026	0,0012	Ya (AUS, NZ),^[36] Tidak (US, EU),^[37]^[38] Mungkin (WHO)^[39]	toksik pada jumlah besar	17
30	Seng		0,0023	0,00031	Ya^[40]^[41] (misalnya Protein jari seng)		12
14	Silikon		0,0010	0,0058	Mungkin^[42]		14
37	Rubidium		0,00068		Tidak		1
38	Stronsium		0,00032		——		2
35	Brom		0,00026		——		17
82	Timbal		0,00012		Tidak	toksik	14
29	Tembaga				Ya^[43]^[44] (misalnya protein tembaga)		11
13	Aluminium				Tidak		13
48	Kadmium				Tidak	toksik	12
58	Cerium				Tidak
56	Barium				Tidak	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	2
50	Timah				Tidak		14
53	Iodium				Ya^[45]^[46] (misalnya tiroksin, triiodotironin)		17
22	Titanium				Tidak		4
5	Boron				Mungkin^[47]^[48]		13
34	Selenium				Ya^[49]^[50]	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	16
28	Nikel				Mungkin^[51]^[52]	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	10
24	Kromium				Ya^[53]^[54]		6
25	Mangan				Ya^[55]^[56] (misalnya Mn-SOD)		7
33	Arsenik				Mungkin^[57]^[58]	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	15
3	Litium				——	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	1
80	Raksa				Tidak	toksik	12
55	Cesium				Tidak		1
42	Molibdenum				Ya^[59]^[60] (misalnya molibdenum oksotransferase, Xantin oksidase dan Sulfit oksidase)		6
32	Germanium		data-sort-value="0.000005"		Tidak		14
27	Kobalt				Ya (kobalamin, B)^[61]^[62]		9
51	Antimon				Tidak	toksik	15
47	Perak				Tidak		11
41	Niobium				Tidak		5
40	Zirkonium				Tidak		4
57	Lantanum				Tidak
52	Telurium				Tidak		16
31	Galium				Tidak		13
39	Yttrium				Tidak		3
83	Bismut				Tidak		15
81	Talium				Tidak	sangat beracun	13
49	Indium				Tidak		13
79	Emas				Tidak	nanopartikel tak bersalut kemungkinan genotoksik^[63]^[64]^[65]	11
21	Skandium				Tidak		3
73	Tantalum				Tidak		5
23	Vanadium				Mungkin^[66] (diperkirakan faktor pertumbuhan osteo-metabolisme (tulang)		5
90	Torium				Tidak	toksik, radioaktif
92	Uranium				Tidak	toksik, radioaktif
62	Samarium				Tidak
74	Tungsten				Tidak		6
4	Berilium				Tidak	toksik pada jumlah yang lebih tinggi	2
88	Radium				Tidak	toksik, radioaktif	2

*Besi = ~3 g pada pria, ~2,3 g pada wanita

Sebagian besar unsur yang dibutuhkan untuk kehidupan relatif umum di dalam kerak bumi. Aluminium, unsur paling umum ketiga dalam kerak bumi (setelah oksigen dan silikon), tidak mempunyai fungsi dalam sel hidup, tetapi malah berbahaya pada jumlah besar.^[67] Transferin dapat mengikat aluminium.^[68]

Unsur sisanya

Dari 94 unsur kimia yang terjadi secara alami, 60 terdaftar pada tabel di atas. Dari 34 sisanya, tidak diketahui jumlah yang terjadi dalam tubuh manusia. Untuk beberapa unsur-unsur ini, jumlah konsentrasi dalam berbagai jaringan atau organ sudah ada, khususnya dari studi yang melibatkan ukuran sampel populasi kecil.

Gas mulia

Konsentrasi gas mulia dalam darah.^[69]

Nomor atom	Unsur	Efek negatif jika berlebih	Golongan
2	Helium	asfiksian	18
10	Neon	asfiksian	18
18	Argon	asfiksian	18
36	Kripton	asfiksian	18
54	Xenon	asfiksian	18
86	Radon*	sangat radioaktif	18

* nilai hipotetis untuk radon berdasarkan 10 Bq/m³ dan 0,4 untuk koefisien partisi darah/air.^[70]

Lantanida

Dari tujuh belas unsur tanah jarang, lima belas merupakan anggota deret lantanida. Dua lainnya, skandium dan yttrium, tercatat pada tabel di atas, sama seperti tiga lantanida: lantanum, cerium, dan samarium. Dari sisa dua belas lantanida, sebelas tercantum pada tabel di bawah. Tidak tersedia informasi tentang lantanida yang tersisa dan sangat radioaktif, prometium.

Konsentrasi unsur tanah jarang/lantanida dalam serum darah.^[71]

Nomor atom	unsur	Efek negatif jika berlebih^[72]	Golongan
59	Praseodimium	toksisitas rendah hingga sedang	n/a
60	Neodimium	toksisitas rendah hingga sedang	n/a
63	Europium	sebanding dengan logam berat lainnya	n/a
64	Gadolinium	ion bebasnya sangat beracun	n/a
65	Terbium	toksisitas rendah hingga sedang	n/a
66	Disprosium	agak beracun jika tertelan	n/a
67	Holmium	toksisitas akut rendah	n/a
68	Erbium	toksisitas rendah hingga sedang	n/a
69	Thulium	garam terlarutnya agak toksik dalam jumlah besar	n/a
70	Ytterbium	seluruh senyawanya sangat toksik	n/a
71	Lutesium	serbuk oksidanya toksik	n/a

Logam golongan platina (PGMs)

Konsentrasi logam golongan platina dalam darah.

Nomor atom	Unsur	g/ml⁻¹ darah total	g/ml⁻¹ serum darah	Efek negatif jika berlebih	Golongan
44	Rutenium^[73]		—		n/a
45	Rodium^[74]		—		n/a
46	Paladium^[75]^[76]		—	partikel kecil larut dalam media biologis (asam lambung, serum darah) - efek jangka panjang tidak diketahui^[77]	n/a
76	Osmium^[78]^[79]	—	–	teroksidasi menjadi osmium tetroksida yang sangat beracun^[80]^[81]	n/a
77	Iridium^[82]^[83]		—		n/a
78	Platina^[84]	<–	—		n/a

Tabel periodik

Unsur nutrisional dalam tabel periodik:

H																		He
Li	Be												B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg												Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca	Sc		Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr	Y		Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	*	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	**	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Nh	Fl	Mc	Lv	Ts	Og

				*	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
				**	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr

Empat unsur organik dasar

Unsur utama

Unsur renik esensial

Kemungkinan memiliki peran struktural atau fungsional pada mamalia

Molekul

Komposisi tubuh manusia dinyatakan dalam istilah kimia:

Air
Protein – termasuk rambut, jaringan ikat, dll.
Lemak (atau lipida).
Hidroksilapatit dalam tulang.
Karbohidrat seperti glikogen dan glukosa.
DNA.
Ion anorganik terlarut seperti natrium, kalium, klorida, bikarbonat, fosfat.
Gas seperti oksigen, karbon dioksida, nitrogen oksida, hidrogen, karbon monoksida, metanatiol. Molekul-molekul ini mungkin terlarut atau berada sebagai gas dalam paru-paru atau usus. Etana dan pentana diproduksi oleh radikal bebas oksigen.^[85]
Banyak molekul kecil lainnya, seperti asam amino, asam lemak, nukleobasa, nukleosida, nukleotida, vitamin, kofaktor.
Radikal bebas seperti superoksida, hidroksil, dan hidroperoksil.

Komposisi tubuh manusia dapat dilihat dalam skala atomik dan molekuler seperti ditunjukkan pada artikel ini.

Perkiraan kandungan kasar molekul dari sel manusia tipikal 20 mikrometer adalah sebagai berikut:^[86]

Molekul	Persen Massa	Berat mol. (dalton)	Molekul	Persen Molekul
Air	65*	18*		98,73
Senyawa anorganik lain	1,5	N/A		0,74
Lipida	12	N/A		0,475
Senyawa organik lain	0,4	N/A		0,044
Protein	20	N/A		0,011
RNA	1.0	N/A
DNA	0.1		46*

*Jumlah air sangat tergantung pada komposisi tubuh dan jumlah lemak. Pada orang dewasa di negara maju rata-rata ~53% air. Hal ini sangat bervariasi menurut usia, jenis kelamin, dan adipositas. Dalam sampel besar orang dewasa dari semua umur dan kedua jenis kelamin, angka untuk fraksi air menurut beratnya ditemukan 48 ± 6% untuk wanita dan 58 ± 8% air untuk pria.^[87] DNA: Sel manusia juga mengandung DNA mitokondria. Sel sperma mengandung lebih sedikit DNA mitokondria daripada sel lainnya. Sebuah sel darah merah mamalia biasanya tidak mengandung inti sel di masa dewasa, sehingga tidak ada DNA. Namun, sel darah merah ternukleasi (NRBC) hadir dalam sirkulasi janin dan neonatal, dan mungkin muncul pada mamalia dewasa saat terdapat penyakit.

Sel dan jaringan

Komponen seluler utama dalam tubuh manusia.^[88]
Jenis sel	% massa	% jumlah sel
Eritrosit (sel darah merah)	4,2	85,0
Sel otot	28,6	0,001
Adiposit (sel lemak)	9,5	0,2
Sel-sel lainnya	14,3	14,8
Komponen ekstraseluler	34,3	-

Komposisi tubuh juga bisa diekspresikan dalam berbagai bentuk, seperti:

Otot
Lemak
Tulang dan gigi
Jaringan saraf (otak dan saraf)
Hormon
Jaringan ikat
Cairan tubuh (darah, getah bening, urine)
Isi saluran pencernaan, termasuk gas usus
Udara di paru-paru
Epitelium

Sel

Ada banyak spesies bakteri dan mikroorganisme lainnya yang hidup pada atau di dalam tubuh manusia sehat. Fakta menunjukkan bahwa menurut jumlahnya, 90% sel pada (atau di dalam) tubuh manusia adalah mikrob,^[89]^[90] (angka ini lebih sedikit jika menurut massa atau volume). Beberapa dari simbion ini diperlukan untuk kesehatan kita. Mereka yang tidak membantu atau menyakiti manusia disebut organisme komensal.

Lihat juga

Referensi

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↑ Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.
↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.
↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ ; ;
↑ Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.
↑ Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition. National Academies Press. 1 February 1989. ISBN 978-0-309-04633-6.
↑ Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)
↑ Kazuhiro Yamada. Cobalt: Its Role in Health and Disease. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 2013. Vol. 13. hlm. 295–320. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_9.
↑ Lucia Banci. Metallomics and the Cell. Springer Science & Business Media. 18 April 2013. hlm. 333–368. ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1.
↑ Ilaria Fratoddi. How toxic are gold nanoparticles? The state-of-the-art. Nano Research. 2015. Vol. 8 (6). hlm. 1771–1799. doi:10.1007/s12274-014-0697-3.
↑ Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of gold (E 175) as a food additive. EFSA Journal. 2016. Vol. 14 (1). hlm. 4362. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4362.
↑ Julián F. Hillyer. Gastrointestinal persorption and tissue distribution of differently sized colloidal gold nanoparticles. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2001. Vol. 90 (12). hlm. 1927–1936. doi:10.1002/jps.1143.
↑ Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.
↑ Aluminum Toxicity
↑ K. Mizutani. Structure of aluminium-bound ovotransferrin at 2.15 Å resolution. Acta Crystallographica Section D. 2005. Vol. 61 (12). hlm. 1636. doi:10.1107/S090744490503266X.
↑ Yama Tomonaga. Determination of Natural In Vivo Noble-Gas Concentrations in Human Blood. PLoS ONE. 2014. Vol. 9 (5). hlm. e96972. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096972.
↑ Keith S, Doyle JR, Harper C, et al. "Toxicological Profile for Radon", section 3.4.1.1, page 51. Atlanta (GA): Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US); 2012 May. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK158784/
↑ Kazumi Inagaki. Determination of rare earth elements in human blood serum by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after chelating resin preconcentration. The Analyst. 2000. Vol. 125 (1). hlm. 191–196. doi:10.1039/a907781b.
↑ Kyung Taek Rim. Toxicological Evaluations of Rare Earths and Their Health Impacts to Workers: A Literature Review. Safety and Health at Work. 2013. Vol. 4 (1). hlm. 12–26. doi:10.5491/SHAW.2013.4.1.12.
↑ I. Rodushkin. Multielement analysis of whole blood by high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 1999. Vol. 364 (4). hlm. 338–346. doi:10.1007/s002160051346.
↑ I. Rodushkin. Multielement analysis of whole blood by high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 1999. Vol. 364 (4). hlm. 338–346. doi:10.1007/s002160051346.
↑ Khaiwal Ravindra. Platinum group elements in the environment and their health risk. Science of The Total Environment. 2004. Vol. 318 (1–3). hlm. 1–43. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00372-3.
↑ Jutta Begerow. Determination of Physiological Palladium, Platinum, Iridium and Gold Levels in Human Blood Using Double Focusing Magnetic Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 1997. Vol. 12 (9). hlm. 1095–1098. doi:10.1039/a701094j.
↑ "Environmental Health Criteria" 226 ISBN 92-4-157226-4, ISSN 0250-863X
↑ Ilia Rodushkin. Determination of low-abundance elements at ultra-trace levels in urine and serum by inductively coupled plasma—sector field mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2004. Vol. 380 (2). hlm. 247–257. doi:10.1007/s00216-004-2742-7.
↑ ALS Scandinavia, Reference data, Biomonitoring, "Trace elements in human biological material"
↑ Robert E. Krebs. The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2006. hlm. 158. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2.
↑ James A. Russell. Globalization and WMD Proliferation: Terrorism, Transnational Networks and International Security. Routledge. 4 December 2009. hlm. 123. ISBN 978-1-134-07969-8.
↑ Khaiwal Ravindra. Platinum group elements in the environment and their health risk. Science of The Total Environment. 2004. Vol. 318 (1–3). hlm. 1–43. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00372-3.
↑ Jutta Begerow. Determination of Physiological Palladium, Platinum, Iridium and Gold Levels in Human Blood Using Double Focusing Magnetic Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 1997. Vol. 12 (9). hlm. 1095–1098. doi:10.1039/a701094j.
↑ J. Messerschmidt. Adsorptive voltammetric procedure for the determination of platinum baseline levels in human body fluids. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 1992. Vol. 343 (4). hlm. 391–394. doi:10.1007/BF00322878.
↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
↑ Robert A. Freitas Jr. Nanomedicine,. Landes Bioscience. 1999. hlm. Tables 3–1 & 3–2. ISBN 1-57059-680-8.
↑ See table 1. here
↑ Ron Sender. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLOS Biology. 2016. Vol. 14 (8). hlm. e1002533. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533.
↑ Josie Glausiusz. Your Body Is a Planet.
↑ Melinda Wenner. Humans Carry More Bacterial Cells than Human Ones.

Sumber dan atribusi

Konten artikel ini diadaptasi dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, revisi 29126238 (2026-04-13T11:17:20Z), yang tersedia berdasarkan lisensi Creative Commons Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa (CC BY-SA). Mohon gunakan konten ini secara bijak serta sesuai dengan ketentuan lisensi yang berlaku.

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[39] WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/96 "Fluoride in Drinking-water"

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[46] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)

[47] Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.

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[50] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)

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[54] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)

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[57] ; ;

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[60] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21: Food and Drugs, Ch 1, subchapter B, Part 101, Subpart A, §101.9(c)(8)(iv)

[61] Kazuhiro Yamada. Cobalt: Its Role in Health and Disease. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 2013. Vol. 13. hlm. 295–320. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_9.

[62] Lucia Banci. Metallomics and the Cell. Springer Science & Business Media. 18 April 2013. hlm. 333–368. ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1.

[63] Ilaria Fratoddi. How toxic are gold nanoparticles? The state-of-the-art. Nano Research. 2015. Vol. 8 (6). hlm. 1771–1799. doi:10.1007/s12274-014-0697-3.

[64] Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of gold (E 175) as a food additive. EFSA Journal. 2016. Vol. 14 (1). hlm. 4362. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4362.

[65] Julián F. Hillyer. Gastrointestinal persorption and tissue distribution of differently sized colloidal gold nanoparticles. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2001. Vol. 90 (12). hlm. 1927–1936. doi:10.1002/jps.1143.

[66] Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. National Academies Press. 29 September 2006. hlm. 313–19, 415–22. ISBN 978-0-309-15742-1.

[67] Aluminum Toxicity

[68] K. Mizutani. Structure of aluminium-bound ovotransferrin at 2.15 Å resolution. Acta Crystallographica Section D. 2005. Vol. 61 (12). hlm. 1636. doi:10.1107/S090744490503266X.

[69] Yama Tomonaga. Determination of Natural In Vivo Noble-Gas Concentrations in Human Blood. PLoS ONE. 2014. Vol. 9 (5). hlm. e96972. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096972.

[70] Keith S, Doyle JR, Harper C, et al. "Toxicological Profile for Radon", section 3.4.1.1, page 51. Atlanta (GA): Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US); 2012 May. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK158784/

[71] Kazumi Inagaki. Determination of rare earth elements in human blood serum by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after chelating resin preconcentration. The Analyst. 2000. Vol. 125 (1). hlm. 191–196. doi:10.1039/a907781b.

[72] Kyung Taek Rim. Toxicological Evaluations of Rare Earths and Their Health Impacts to Workers: A Literature Review. Safety and Health at Work. 2013. Vol. 4 (1). hlm. 12–26. doi:10.5491/SHAW.2013.4.1.12.

[73] I. Rodushkin. Multielement analysis of whole blood by high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 1999. Vol. 364 (4). hlm. 338–346. doi:10.1007/s002160051346.

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[75] Khaiwal Ravindra. Platinum group elements in the environment and their health risk. Science of The Total Environment. 2004. Vol. 318 (1–3). hlm. 1–43. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00372-3.

[76] Jutta Begerow. Determination of Physiological Palladium, Platinum, Iridium and Gold Levels in Human Blood Using Double Focusing Magnetic Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 1997. Vol. 12 (9). hlm. 1095–1098. doi:10.1039/a701094j.

[77] "Environmental Health Criteria" 226 ISBN 92-4-157226-4, ISSN 0250-863X

[78] Ilia Rodushkin. Determination of low-abundance elements at ultra-trace levels in urine and serum by inductively coupled plasma—sector field mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2004. Vol. 380 (2). hlm. 247–257. doi:10.1007/s00216-004-2742-7.

[79] ALS Scandinavia, Reference data, Biomonitoring, "Trace elements in human biological material"

[80] Robert E. Krebs. The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2006. hlm. 158. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2.

[81] James A. Russell. Globalization and WMD Proliferation: Terrorism, Transnational Networks and International Security. Routledge. 4 December 2009. hlm. 123. ISBN 978-1-134-07969-8.

[82] Khaiwal Ravindra. Platinum group elements in the environment and their health risk. Science of The Total Environment. 2004. Vol. 318 (1–3). hlm. 1–43. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00372-3.

[83] Jutta Begerow. Determination of Physiological Palladium, Platinum, Iridium and Gold Levels in Human Blood Using Double Focusing Magnetic Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 1997. Vol. 12 (9). hlm. 1095–1098. doi:10.1039/a701094j.

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[85] sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia

[86] Robert A. Freitas Jr. Nanomedicine,. Landes Bioscience. 1999. hlm. Tables 3–1 & 3–2. ISBN 1-57059-680-8.

[87] See table 1. here

[88] Ron Sender. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLOS Biology. 2016. Vol. 14 (8). hlm. e1002533. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533.

[89] Josie Glausiusz. Your Body Is a Planet.

[90] Melinda Wenner. Humans Carry More Bacterial Cells than Human Ones.

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