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Deret elektrokimia

Ensiklopedia Pengetahuan Universitas Islam Sultan Agung
Revisi sejak 28 Agustus 2026 09.11 oleh Maintenance script (bicara | kontrib) (Presentation V4: sitasi, referensi, Math, Wikimedia Commons, dan atribusi)
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Deret elektrokimia atau deret Volta adalah urutan logam-logam (ditambah hidrogen) berdasarkan kenaikan potensial elektrode standarnya.[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Umumnya deret volta yang sering dipakai adalah adalah:

Li K Ba Sr Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Pt Au

Pada Deret Volta, unsur logam dengan potensial elektrode lebih negatif ditempatkan di bagian kiri, sedangkan unsur dengan potensial elektrode yang lebih positif ditempatkan di bagian kanan.

Semakin ke kiri kedudukan suatu logam dalam deret tersebut, maka

  • Logam semakin reaktif (semakin mudah melepas elektron)
  • Logam merupakan reduktor yang semakin kuat (semakin mudah mengalami oksidasi)

Sebaliknya, semakin ke kanan kedudukan suatu logam dalam deret tersebut, maka

  • Logam semakin kurang reaktif (semakin sulit melepas elektron)
  • Logam merupakan oksidator yang semakin kuat (semakin mudah mengalami reduksi)

Salah satu metode untuk mencegah korosi antara lain dengan menghubungkan logam (misalnya besi) dengan logam yang letaknya lebih kiri dari logam tersebut dalam deret volta (misalnya magnesium) sehingga logam yang mempunyai potensial elektrode yang lebih negatif lah yang akan mengalami oksidasi. Metode pencegahan karat seperti ini disebut perlindungan katodik. Contoh lain dari perlindungan katodik adalah pipa besi, tiang telepon, dan berbagai barang lain yang dilapisi dengan zink, atau disebut Galvanisasi. Zink dapat melindungi besi dari korosi sekalipun lapisannya tidak utuh. Oleh karena potensial reduksi besi lebih positif daripada zink (posisinya dalam deret Volta lebih ke kanan), maka besi yang kontak dengan zink akan membentuk sel elektrokimia dengan besi sebagai katode. Dengan demikian besi terlindungi dan zink yang mengalami oksidasi. Badan mobil-mobil baru pada umumnya telah digalvanisasi, sehingga tahan karat.

Larutan garam suatu logam yang berada di bagian kiri dapat bereaksi dengan logam yang berada di bagian kanan. Contohnya larutan FeCl3 (feri chloride) boleh mengikis Cu (copper / tembaga).

Berikut adalah deret elektrokimia lengkap, diukur pada 298,15 K (25 °C):

Legenda: (s)–padat; (l)–cair; (g)–gas; (aq)–larutan; (Hg)–amalgam.
Setengah reaksi E° (V) Ref.
& -9
Zz 9
3⁄2N2(g) + + HN3(aq)   [9]
Li + Li(s)   [10]
N2(g) + 4 + 2 2NH2OH(aq) + 2   [11]
Cs + Cs(s)   [12]
Rb + Rb(s)   [13]
K + K(s)   [14]
Ba2+ + 2 Ba(s)   [15]
La(OH)3(s) + 3 La(s) + 3   [16]
Sr2+ + 2 Sr(s)   [17]
Ca2+ + 2 Ca(s)   [18]
Eu2+ + 2 Eu(s)   [19]
Ra2+ + 2 Ra(s)   [20]
Na + Na(s)   [21][22]
La3+ + 3 La(s)   [23]
Y3+ + 3 Y(s)   [24]
Mg2+ + 2 Mg(s)   [25]
ZrO(OH)2(s) + + 4 Zr(s) + 4   [26]
Al(OH)4− + 3 Al(s) + 4  
Al(OH)3(s) + 3 Al(s) + 3  
H2(g) + 2 2H−  
Ac3+ + 3 Ac(s)  
Be2+ + 2 Be(s)  
U3+ + 3 U(s)   [27]
Al3+ + 3 Al(s)   [28]
Ti2+ + 2 Ti(s)   [29]
ZrO2(s) + 4 + 4 Zr(s) + 2   [30]
Zr4+ + 4 Zr(s)   [31]
Ti3+ + 3 Ti(s)   [32]
TiO(s) + 2 + 2 Ti(s) +  
Ti2O3(s) + 2 + 2 2TiO(s) +  
Zn(OH)42− + 2 Zn(s) + 4   [33]
Mn2+ + 2 Mn(s)   [34]
Fe(CN)64− + 6 + 2 Fe(s) + 4HCN(aq)   [35]
Te(s) + 2 Te2−   [36]
V2+ + 2 V(s)   [37]
Nb3+ + 3 Nb(s)  
Sn(s) + 4 + 4 SnH4(g)  
SiO2(s) + 4 + 4 Si(s) + 2  
B(OH)3(aq) + 3 + 3 B(s) + 3  
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2 Fe(s) + 2   [38]
Fe2O3(s) + 3 + 2 2Fe(OH)2(s) + 2   [39]
TiO2+ + 2 + 4 Ti(s) +  
2air + 2 H2(g) + 2   [40]
Bi(s) + 3 + 3 BiH3   [41]
Zn2+ + 2 Zn(Hg)   [42]
Zn2+ + 2 Zn(s)   [43]
Ta2O5(s) + 10 + 10 2Ta(s) + 5  
Cr3+ + 3 Cr(s)  
[Au(CN)2]− + Au(s) + 2CN−  
Ta3+ + 3 Ta(s)  
PbO(s) + + 2 Pb(s) + 2  
2TiO2(s) + 2 + 2 Ti2O3(s) +  
Ga3+ + 3 Ga(s)  
U4+ + U3+   [44]
H3PO2(aq) + + P(white)[45] + 2   [46]
H3PO3(aq) + 2 + 2 H3PO2(aq) +   [47]
H3PO3(aq) + 3 + 3 P(red)[48] + 3   [49]
Fe2+ + 2 Fe(s)   [50]
2CO2(g) + 2 + 2 HOOCCOOH(aq)  
Cr3+ + Cr2+  
Cd2+ + 2 Cd(s)   [51]
GeO2(s) + 2 + 2 GeO(s) +  
Cu2O(s) + + 2 2Cu(s) + 2   [52]
PbSO4(s) + 2 Pb(s) + SO42−   [53]
PbSO4(s) + 2 Pb(Hg) + SO42−   [54]
Eu3+ + Eu2+   [55]
In3+ + 3 In(s)   [56]
Tl + Tl(s)   [57]
Ge(s) + 4 + 4 GeH4(g)  
Co2+ + 2 Co(s)   [58]
H3PO4(aq) + 2 + 2 H3PO3(aq) +   [59]
V3+ + V2+   [60]
Ni2+ + 2 Ni(s)  
As(s) + 3 + 3 AsH3(g)   [61]
AgI(s) + Ag(s) + I−   [62]
MoO2(s) + 4 + 4 Mo(s) + 2  
Si(s) + 4 + 4 SiH4(g)  
Sn2+ + 2 Sn(s)  
O2(g) + + HO2•(aq)  
Pb2+ + 2 Pb(s)   [63]
WO2(s) + 4 + 4 W(s) + 2  
P(red) + 3 + 3 PH3(g)   [64]
CO2(g) + 2 + 2 HCOOH(aq)  
Se(s) + 2 + 2 H2Se(g)  
CO2(g) + 2 + 2 CO(g) +  
SnO(s) + 2 + 2 Sn(s) +  
SnO2(s) + 2 + 2 SnO(s) +  
WO3(aq) + 6 + 6 W(s) + 3   [65]
P(white) + 3 + 3 PH3(g)   [66]
Fe3+ + 3 Fe(s)   [67]
HCOOH(aq) + 2 + 2 HCHO(aq) +  
2 + 2 H2(g)    0.0000 ≡ 0
AgBr(s) + Ag(s) + Br−  +0.07133 [68]
S4O62− + 2 2S2O32−  +0.08
Fe3O4(s) + 8 + 8 3Fe(s) + 4  +0.085 [69]
N2(g) + 2 + 6 + 6 2NH4OH(aq)  +0.092
HgO(s) + + 2 Hg(l) + 2  +0.0977
Cu(NH3)42+ + Cu(NH3)2 + 2NH3  +0.10 [70]
Ru(NH3)63+ + Ru(NH3)62+  +0.10 [71]
N2H4(aq) + 4 + 2 2NH4 + 4  +0.11 [72]
H2MoO4(aq) + 6 + 6 Mo(s) + 4  +0.11
Ge4+ + 4 Ge(s)  +0.12
C(s) + 4 + 4 CH4(g)  +0.13 [73]
HCHO(aq) + 2 + 2 CH3OH(aq)  +0.13
S(s) + 2 + 2 H2S(g)  +0.14
Sn4+ + 2 Sn2+  +0.15
Cu2+ + Cu  +0.159 [74]
HSO4− + 3 + 2 SO2(aq) + 2  +0.16
UO22+ + UO2  +0.163 [75]
SO42− + 4 + 2 SO2(aq) + 2  +0.17
TiO2+ + 2 + Ti3+ +  +0.19
SbO + 2 + 3 Sb(s) +  +0.20
AgCl(s) + Ag(s) + Cl−  +0.22233 [76]
H3AsO3(aq) + 3 + 3 As(s) + 3  +0.24
GeO(s) + 2 + 2 Ge(s) +  +0.26
UO2 + 4 + U4+ + 2  +0.273 [77]
Re3+ + 3 Re(s)  +0.300
Bi3+ + 3 Bi(s)  +0.308 [78]
VO2+ + 2 + V3+ +  +0.34
Cu2+ + 2 Cu(s)  +0.340 [79]
[Fe(CN)6]3− + [Fe(CN)6]4−  +0.36
O2(g) + 2 + 4 4(aq)  +0.40 [80]
H2MoO4 + 6 + 3 Mo3+ + 2  +0.43
CH3OH(aq) + 2 + 2 CH4(g) +  +0.50
SO2(aq) + 4 + 4 S(s) + 2  +0.50
Cu + Cu(s)  +0.520 [81]
CO(g) + 2 + 2 C(s) +  +0.52
I3− + 2 3I−  +0.53 [82]
I2(s) + 2 2I−  +0.54 [83]
[AuI4]− + 3 Au(s) + 4I−  +0.56
H3AsO4(aq) + 2 + 2 H3AsO3(aq) +  +0.56
[AuI2]− + Au(s) + 2I−  +0.58
MnO4− + 2 + 3 MnO2(s) + 4  +0.59
S2O32− + 6 + 4 2S(s) + 3  +0.60
Fc + Fc(s)  +0.641 [84]
H2MoO4(aq) + 2 + 2 MoO2(s) + 2  +0.65
+ 2 + 2  +0.6992 [85]
O2(g) + 2 + 2 2(aq)  +0.70
Tl3+ + 3 Tl(s)  +0.72
PtCl62− + 2 PtCl42− + 2Cl−  +0.726 [86]
H2SeO3(aq) + 4 + 4 Se(s) + 3  +0.74
PtCl42− + 2 Pt(s) + 4Cl−  +0.758 [87]
Fe3+ + Fe2+  +0.77
Ag + Ag(s)  +0.7996 [88]
Hg22+ + 2 2Hg(l)  +0.80
NO3−(aq) + 2 + NO2(g) +  +0.80
FeO42− + 5 + 6 Fe2O3(s) + 10  +0.81 [89]
[AuBr4]− + 3 Au(s) + 4Br−  +0.85
Hg2+ + 2 Hg(l)  +0.85
MnO4− + + HMnO4−  +0.90
2Hg2+ + 2 Hg22+  +0.91 [90]
Pd2+ + 2 Pd(s)  +0.915 [91]
[AuCl4]− + 3 Au(s) + 4Cl−  +0.93
MnO2(s) + 4 + Mn3+ + 2  +0.95
[AuBr2]− + Au(s) + 2Br−  +0.96
[HXeO6]3− + 2 + 2 + [HXeO4]− + 4  +0.99 [92]
H6TeO6(aq) + 2 + 2 TeO2(s) + 4  +1.02 [93]
Br2(l) + 2 2Br−  +1.066 [94]
Br2(aq) + 2 2Br−  +1.0873 [95]
IO3− + 5 + 4 HIO(aq) + 2  +1.13
[AuCl2]− + Au(s) + 2Cl−  +1.15
HSeO4− + 3 + 2 H2SeO3(aq) +  +1.15
Ag2O(s) + 2 + 2 2Ag(s) +  +1.17
ClO3− + 2 + ClO2(g) +  +1.18
[HXeO6]3− + 5 + 8 Xe(g) + 11  +1.18 [96]
Pt2+ + 2 Pt(s)  +1.188 [97]
ClO2(g) + + HClO2(aq)  +1.19
2IO3− + 12 + 10 I2(s) + 6  +1.20
ClO4− + 2 + 2 ClO3− +  +1.20
O2(g) + 4 + 4 2  +1.229 [98]
MnO2(s) + 4 + 2 Mn2+ + 2  +1.23
[HXeO4]− + 3 + 6 Xe(g) + 7  +1.24 [99]
Tl3+ + 2 Tl  +1.25
Cr2O72− + 14 + 6 2Cr3+ + 7  +1.33
Cl2(g) + 2 2Cl−  +1.36 [100]
CoO2(s) + 4 + Co3+ + 2  +1.42
2NH3O + + 2 N2H5 + 2  +1.42 [101]
2HIO(aq) + 2 + 2 I2(s) + 2  +1.44
Ce4+ + Ce3+  +1.44
BrO3− + 5 + 4 HBrO(aq) + 2  +1.45
β-PbO2(s) + 4 + 2 Pb2+ + 2  +1.460 [102]
α-PbO2(s) + 4 + 2 Pb2+ + 2  +1.468 [103]
2BrO3− + 12 + 10 Br2(l) + 6  +1.48
2ClO3− + 12 + 10 Cl2(g) + 6  +1.49
MnO4− + 8 + 5 Mn2+ + 4  +1.51
HO2• + + 2(aq)  +1.51
Au3+ + 3 Au(s)  +1.52
NiO2(s) + 4 + 2 Ni2+ + 2  +1.59
2HClO(aq) + 2 + 2 Cl2(g) + 2  +1.63
Ag2O3(s) + 6 + 4 2Ag + 3  +1.67
HClO2(aq) + 2 + 2 HClO(aq) +  +1.67
Pb4+ + 2 Pb2+  +1.69 [104]
MnO4− + 4 + 3 MnO2(s) + 2  +1.70
AgO(s) + 2 + Ag +  +1.77
2(aq) + 2 + 2 2  +1.78
Co3+ + Co2+  +1.82
Au + Au(s)  +1.83 [105]
BrO4− + 2 + 2 BrO3− +  +1.85
Ag2+ + Ag  +1.98 [106]
S2O82− + 2 2SO42−  +2.010 [107]
O3(g) + 2 + 2 O2(g) +  +2.075 [108]
HMnO4− + 3 + 2 MnO2(s) + 2  +2.09
XeO3(aq) + 6 + 6 Xe(g) + 3  +2.12 [109]
H4XeO6(aq) + 8 + 8 Xe(g) + 6  +2.18 [110]
FeO42− + 3 + 8 Fe3+ + 4  +2.20 [111]
XeF2(aq) + 2 + 2 Xe(g) + 2HF(aq)  +2.32 [112]
H4XeO6(aq) + 2 + 2 XeO3(aq) +  +2.42 [113]
F2(g) + 2 2F−  +2.87 [114][115]
F2(g) + 2 + 2 2HF(aq)  +3.05 [116]

Lihat pula

Referensi

  1. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  2. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  3. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2009). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 90th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  4. ↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
  5. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  6. ↑ Marcel Pourbaix (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions (NACE International, Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels).
  7. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  8. ↑ Gordon Aylward & Tristan Findlay (2008). "SI Chemical Data", 6th edition (John Wiley & Sons, Australia), ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
  9. ↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
  10. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  11. ↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
  12. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  13. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  14. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  15. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  16. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  17. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  18. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  19. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  20. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  21. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  22. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  23. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  24. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  25. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  26. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  27. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  28. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  29. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  30. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  31. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  32. ↑ Gordon Aylward & Tristan Findlay (2008). "SI Chemical Data", 6th edition (John Wiley & Sons, Australia), ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
  33. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  34. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  35. ↑ WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Iron | compounds information
  36. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  37. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  38. ↑ WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Iron | compounds information
  39. ↑ WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Iron | compounds information
  40. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  41. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  42. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  43. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  44. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  45. ↑ Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×−0.499 + −0.508) ÷ 3 = −0.502 exactly matching the difference between the values for white and red phosphorus in equilibrium with PH 3 .
  46. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  47. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  48. ↑ Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×−0.499 + −0.508) ÷ 3 = −0.502 exactly matching the difference between the values for white and red phosphorus in equilibrium with PH 3 .
  49. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  50. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  51. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  52. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  53. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  54. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  55. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  56. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  57. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  58. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  59. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  60. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  61. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  62. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  63. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  64. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  65. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  66. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  67. ↑ WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Iron | compounds information
  68. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  69. ↑ Marcel Pourbaix (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions (NACE International, Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels).
  70. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  71. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  72. ↑ sumber pada Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia
  73. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  74. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  75. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  76. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  77. ↑ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  78. ↑ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  79. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  80. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
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  115. ↑ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  116. ↑ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).

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